INC & National Movement
Indian National Congress & the National Movement
The Indian National Congress (INC), founded in 1885, became the principal vehicle of India's freedom struggle. The movement evolved through distinct phases — the Moderate phase (1885-1905), the Extremist phase (1905-1919), and the Gandhian phase (1919-1947). The early Congress leaders pioneered constitutional agitation, while later leaders adopted mass mobilization and revolutionary methods.
Key Dates
Indian National Congress founded at Bombay (Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College); A.O. Hume was the principal organizer; W.C. Bonnerjee was the first president
Partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon (effective 16 October 1905) — sparked the Swadeshi and Boycott movements
Congress session at Calcutta — adoption of Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott, and National Education as goals (presided by Dadabhai Naoroji)
Surat Split — Congress split into Moderates (led by Pherozeshah Mehta) and Extremists (led by Tilak) over the scope of Swadeshi
Lucknow Pact — Congress-Muslim League agreement; reunion of Moderates and Extremists; Home Rule Leagues launched by Tilak and Annie Besant
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919) — General Dyer ordered firing on a peaceful gathering at Amritsar; over 1,000 casualties
Lahore Congress Session (presided by Jawaharlal Nehru) — adopted 'Purna Swaraj' (complete independence) as the goal; 26 January 1930 declared as Independence Day
Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Gandhi — boycott of schools, courts, councils; Tilak dies (1 August 1920); Nagpur Congress adopts new constitution
Chauri Chaura incident (5 February 1922) — mob burns police station killing 22 policemen; Gandhi calls off Non-Cooperation Movement
Salt March / Dandi March (12 March - 6 April 1930) — Gandhi walks 385 km from Sabarmati to Dandi; launches Civil Disobedience Movement
Quit India Movement launched (8 August 1942, Bombay Session under Abul Kalam Azad) — Gandhi's call: 'Do or Die'; all top leaders arrested within hours
Three Round Table Conferences in London — Gandhi attends the Second RTC (1931); Communal Award (1932); no significant outcome for Indian self-rule
Muslim League founded at Dhaka (30 December 1906) by Aga Khan III, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka — demanded separate Muslim representation
Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act 1909) — introduced separate electorates for Muslims; expanded legislative councils
Foundation of the INC
The Indian National Congress was founded in December 1885 at Bombay. Allan Octavian Hume (a retired British civil servant) is credited as the principal founder, though Indian leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Dinshaw Wacha, and W.C. Bonnerjee played key roles. The first session (28-31 December 1885) was attended by 72 delegates. W.C. Bonnerjee (Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee) was the first president. The 'Safety Valve' theory suggests Hume founded the Congress to provide a safe outlet for Indian grievances and prevent a revolution like 1857. Lord Dufferin (Viceroy) initially encouraged the Congress. The first few sessions discussed issues like civil service reform, reduction of military expenditure, and economic exploitation.
Moderate Phase (1885-1905)
The Moderates believed in constitutional methods — petitions, memorials, resolutions, and delegations to Britain. Key leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji ('Grand Old Man of India,' first Indian MP in the British Parliament — Finsbury Central, 1892), Gopal Krishna Gokhale ('Political Guru of Gandhi,' founded the Servants of India Society in 1905), Surendranath Banerjee ('Indian Burke,' founder of the Indian National Association, 1876), Pherozeshah Mehta ('Lion of Bombay'), Dinshaw Wacha, Madan Mohan Malaviya, and R.C. Dutt. Achievements: articulated the economic critique of British rule (Drain of Wealth), demanded Indianization of civil services, and created political awareness. Limitations: their methods were described as 'political mendicancy' by Extremists; they represented the educated elite and had no mass base.
Extremist Phase (1905-1919)
The Extremists (also called Nationalists) believed that political rights could only be won through more assertive methods — Swadeshi, Boycott, passive resistance, and national education. Key leaders: Bal Gangadhar Tilak ('Father of Indian National Movement,' 'Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it'), Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal-Bal-Pal trio), Aurobindo Ghosh. The Partition of Bengal (1905) by Curzon energized the Extremists and gave birth to the Swadeshi Movement. The Calcutta Session (1906) under Dadabhai Naoroji adopted four resolutions: Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott, and National Education. The Surat Split (1907) occurred when Moderates and Extremists disagreed over the scope of Swadeshi — Tilak's group was expelled. Tilak was imprisoned (1908-14) for sedition ('The case of Tilak'). The Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) were an attempt to appease the Moderates.
Swadeshi Movement (1905-1911)
The Swadeshi Movement was born as a reaction to the Partition of Bengal (16 October 1905). It was the first mass movement in Indian history. Key features: Boycott of British goods (especially Manchester cloth — bonfires of foreign cloth), promotion of Indian-made goods (swadeshi enterprises), national education (Bengal National College with Aurobindo as principal), cultural nationalism (Rabindranath Tagore wrote 'Amar Sonar Bangla,' which later became Bangladesh's national anthem), and samitis (organizations like Anushilan Samiti). The movement saw the emergence of revolutionary terrorism — Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki attempted to kill Magistrate Kingsford (Muzaffarpur bombing, 1908). The Partition was annulled in 1911 by Lord Hardinge, but Bengal was divided on linguistic lines (Bengali-speaking and Hindi/Urdu-speaking areas).
Home Rule Movement (1916-18)
Two Home Rule Leagues were established in 1916: Tilak's Indian Home Rule League (April 1916, based in Pune, active in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Provinces, and Berar) and Annie Besant's All India Home Rule League (September 1916, based in Madras, active in the rest of India). The movement demanded self-government or 'Home Rule' within the British Empire, inspired by the Irish Home Rule movement. Tilak's famous declaration 'Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it' became the movement's slogan. Besant was interned by the Madras government in June 1917, which made her a national figure and increased sympathy for the cause. The August 1917 Declaration by Secretary of State Montagu promised 'the increasing association of Indians in every branch of administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions.' The movement reunited Moderates and Extremists at the Lucknow Session (1916), which also saw the Congress-League Pact (Lucknow Pact) with the Muslim League.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)
On 13 April 1919 (Baisakhi day), Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered troops to fire on a peaceful gathering of thousands at Jallianwala Bagh, a walled garden in Amritsar. The crowd had assembled to protest the arrest of Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satya Pal under the Rowlatt Act. Official figures put the dead at 379, but actual casualties were over 1,000 (Indian estimates). Dyer blocked the only exit and continued firing for 10 minutes until ammunition was nearly exhausted. 1,650 rounds were fired. The Hunter Commission investigated but gave Dyer only a mild censure. The Disorders Inquiry Committee (Hunter Committee) report was condemned by the Congress, which appointed its own committee (with Motilal Nehru and Gandhi). Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest. The massacre radicalized Indian opinion and paved the way for Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement. Udham Singh assassinated Michael O'Dwyer (Lt. Governor of Punjab who endorsed Dyer's action) in London in 1940.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22)
The Non-Cooperation Movement was Gandhi's first mass political campaign and marked the beginning of the Gandhian era. Context: anger over the Rowlatt Act (1919), Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Khilafat grievance (dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire after WWI offended Indian Muslims), and economic hardship after WWI. The movement was launched in August 1920 at a special Congress session in Calcutta and formally adopted at the Nagpur Congress (December 1920). Programme: boycott of government educational institutions (national schools and colleges were established — Jamia Millia Islamia founded in 1920, Kashi Vidyapith, Gujarat Vidyapith), boycott of British courts (many lawyers gave up practice — Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, Rajendra Prasad), boycott of legislative councils (though some leaders like C.R. Das later advocated council entry), boycott of foreign cloth and promotion of khadi, surrender of government titles and honors. The Khilafat Committee (Ali Brothers — Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali) joined the movement, creating Hindu-Muslim unity. Tilak had died on 1 August 1920, leaving Gandhi as the undisputed leader. The movement was called off after the Chauri Chaura incident (5 February 1922, Gorakhpur, UP) where a mob burned a police station killing 22 policemen. Gandhi's decision to withdraw was controversial — many leaders including Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, and Jawaharlal Nehru felt it was premature. The aftermath saw the formation of the Swaraj Party (1923) by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru for council entry, and the revolutionary movement gained strength.
Civil Disobedience Movement & Salt March (1930-34)
The Civil Disobedience Movement was Gandhi's most famous campaign and the high point of mass participation in the freedom struggle. Prelude: the Lahore Congress (1929) under Jawaharlal Nehru declared Purna Swaraj; 26 January 1930 was observed as Independence Day. The Salt March (Dandi March): on 12 March 1930, Gandhi began his historic march from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (a coastal village in Gujarat), a distance of 385 km, covered in 24 days with 78 followers. On 6 April 1930, he picked up a lump of salt from the beach, breaking the British salt law — salt was a government monopoly and the tax affected every Indian. The Salt March was a stroke of genius — it united all classes and castes around a simple, universally felt grievance. Mass salt satyagrahas erupted across India. The Dharasana Salt Works raid (21 May 1930, led by Sarojini Naidu and Abbas Tyabji after Gandhi's arrest) was covered by American journalist Webb Miller, whose report shocked the world. 60,000+ people were arrested during the movement. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact (5 March 1931) ended the first phase — political prisoners released, salt manufacture allowed for personal use, Gandhi attended the Second Round Table Conference in London (September-December 1931) as the sole Congress representative. The movement was revived in January 1932 after the failure of the RTC, but was called off in 1934. Key feature: for the first time, women participated in large numbers (Kamladevi Chattopadhyay, Sarojini Naidu, and thousands of ordinary women).
Quit India Movement (1942)
The Quit India Movement was the most radical mass uprising against British rule. Context: the failure of the Cripps Mission (March 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps offered Dominion Status after WWII with an opt-out clause for provinces — rejected by both Congress and Muslim League), the Japanese advance toward India (fall of Singapore and Burma), and rising popular discontent. The All India Congress Committee passed the Quit India Resolution at the Bombay session on 8 August 1942 (president: Abul Kalam Azad). Gandhi's call: 'Do or Die' (Karo ya Maro). Within hours, all major Congress leaders — Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, Azad, Rajendra Prasad — were arrested. The movement became a leaderless, spontaneous people's uprising. Features: strikes, demonstrations, destruction of communication infrastructure (railway lines, telegraph wires, post offices), formation of parallel governments (Pratap Governments) in Ballia (UP), Tamluk (Midnapore, Bengal — Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar), and Satara (Maharashtra — Prati Sarkar led by Nana Patil). Underground leadership: Ram Manohar Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali (hoisted the flag at Gowalia Tank Maidan, Bombay), Jayaprakash Narayan (escaped from Hazaribagh Jail), and Usha Mehta (ran an underground radio station — 'Congress Radio'). British response: brutal suppression with 100,000+ arrests, firing on crowds, collective fines, and whipping. Over 10,000 killed in the repression. The movement failed militarily but shattered the moral authority of British rule. Gandhi was released in May 1944 due to failing health.
Revolutionary Nationalism
Alongside the Congress movement, a parallel stream of revolutionary nationalism sought independence through armed struggle. The Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar (Bengal) were early revolutionary organizations. Key events: the Muzaffarpur bombing (1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki — youngest revolutionary, Bose was 18 when hanged), the Alipore Bomb Case (1908, Aurobindo Ghosh acquitted, defended by C.R. Das), the Ghadar Movement (1913, founded by Lala Har Dayal in San Francisco — planned armed revolt in India using Sikh soldiers), the Komagata Maru incident (1914, ship carrying Indian immigrants denied entry in Canada), and the Kakori Conspiracy Case (1925, Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, Roshan Singh, Rajendra Lahiri — train robbery to fund revolution; all four hanged). The Hindustan Republican Association (HRA, 1924) was reorganized as the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA, 1928) by Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, and Sukhdev. Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly (8 April 1929) — not to kill but to 'make the deaf hear.' The Lahore Conspiracy Case led to the execution of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru on 23 March 1931. Surya Sen (Masterda) led the Chittagong Armoury Raid (18 April 1930). Rash Behari Bose escaped to Japan and later helped found the Indian National Army. Subhas Chandra Bose organized the INA (Azad Hind Fauj) with Japanese support, gave the call 'Dilli Chalo' and 'Give me blood and I will give you freedom.' The INA trial at Red Fort (1945) created a wave of nationalist sentiment.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Round Table Conferences & Government of India Act 1935
The Gandhi-Irwin Pact (5 March 1931): signed between Gandhi and Viceroy Lord Irwin — Congress agreed to discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement; the government agreed to release political prisoners (not those convicted of violence), allow salt manufacture for personal use, and permit peaceful picketing. Gandhi attended the Second Round Table Conference (September-December 1931) as the sole Congress representative — it failed because the question of communal representation could not be resolved. The First RTC (November 1930) was boycotted by Congress; the Third RTC (1932) was also unproductive. The Communal Award (August 1932) by PM Ramsay MacDonald granted separate electorates to Depressed Classes — leading to the Gandhi-Ambedkar confrontation and the Poona Pact. The Government of India Act 1935 was the most significant constitutional reform before independence: it provided for provincial autonomy (elected ministries in 11 provinces), a federal structure (never implemented because princely states refused to join), separate electorates for communities, and a Federal Court. Congress won elections in 7 of 11 provinces in 1937 and formed ministries — this period of Congress rule (1937-39) is important for understanding both Congress governance and Muslim League grievances (the League accused Congress of 'Hindu Raj'). Congress ministries resigned in October 1939 when the Viceroy declared India at war without consulting Indian leaders — the Muslim League celebrated 22 December 1939 as 'Deliverance Day.'
Subhas Chandra Bose & the INA
Subhas Chandra Bose (1897-1945, Netaji) was the most charismatic and controversial leader of the freedom movement. He was Congress president twice (Haripura, 1938 and Tripuri, 1939) — at Tripuri, he won against Gandhi's candidate Pattabhi Sitaramayya but was forced to resign due to the Working Committee's non-cooperation. He founded the Forward Bloc (1939) within the Congress. In January 1941, he escaped British surveillance in Calcutta and made a dramatic journey through Afghanistan and the Soviet Union to Germany, and eventually to Japan. He reorganized the Indian National Army (INA/Azad Hind Fauj) — originally formed by Captain Mohan Singh with Indian POWs captured by Japan in Southeast Asia — and established the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind, 21 October 1943, Singapore). The INA fought alongside the Japanese in the Burma campaign (Imphal, 1944) and briefly entered Indian soil in Manipur and Nagaland. Famous slogans: 'Dilli Chalo' (Onward to Delhi), 'Jai Hind,' 'Give me blood and I will give you freedom,' and 'Tum mujhe khoon do, main tumhe azadi dunga.' The INA had a women's regiment — the Rani of Jhansi Regiment. Bose reportedly died in a plane crash in Taiwan on 18 August 1945, though conspiracy theories persist. The INA trials at Red Fort (1945-46) — where Shah Nawaz Khan, P.K. Sahgal, and G.S. Dhillon were prosecuted — created massive nationalist sentiment. The RIN Mutiny (February 1946) was partly inspired by the INA trials.
Congress and Communalism — Partition Background
The communal divide that led to Partition was rooted in British policy (divide and rule, separate electorates from 1909) but was deepened by political failures. The Muslim League (founded 1906) initially sought Muslim rights within a united India. The Lucknow Pact (1916) was a high point of Hindu-Muslim unity. But the collapse of the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance (1922) and communal riots in the 1920s (Moplah Rebellion in Malabar, 1921; Kohat riots, 1924) strained relations. The Nehru Report (1928) proposed a constitution with joint electorates and no separate communal representation — Jinnah's 14 Points (1929) rejected this and demanded federal structure, separate electorates, and one-third Muslim representation. The Congress ministry period (1937-39) worsened relations — the League's Pirpur Committee Report (1938) documented alleged anti-Muslim bias by Congress governments. The Lahore Resolution (23 March 1940, popularly but inaccurately called the 'Pakistan Resolution') demanded independent Muslim states. The failure of the Cripps Mission (1942), the failure of the Simla Conference (1945, Viceroy Wavell's attempt at an executive council), the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946, proposed a three-tier federal structure — rejected by the Muslim League in July 1946 after initially accepting), and the Direct Action Day (16 August 1946, called by Jinnah — the Great Calcutta Killings with 4,000+ deaths) made Partition virtually inevitable. The Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947) finalized Partition and independence on 15 August 1947.
Women in the Freedom Movement
Women played transformative roles in the Indian freedom movement, moving from symbolic participation to active leadership. During the Swadeshi Movement (1905-11), women participated in boycotts, Rakhi-tying ceremonies, and public gatherings. Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949, the 'Nightingale of India') was the first Indian woman to become Congress president (1925); she led the Dharasana Salt Satyagraha (1930) after Gandhi's arrest and later became the first woman Governor of an Indian state (UP, 1947). Kamladevi Chattopadhyay organized women's participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement and was arrested for making salt. Annie Besant (Irish-born) was the first woman president of the INC (1917) and co-founder of the Home Rule League. Aruna Asaf Ali (1909-1996) hoisted the flag at the Gowalia Tank Maidan during the Quit India Movement (8 August 1942) — one of the most iconic images of the movement; she went underground and was called the 'Heroine of the 1942 Movement.' Usha Mehta ran the underground 'Congress Radio' during the Quit India Movement. Kasturba Gandhi participated in all major satyagrahas and died in detention at the Aga Khan Palace (22 February 1944). Captain Lakshmi Sahgal (nee Swaminathan) commanded the Rani of Jhansi Regiment of the INA. Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit (Nehru's sister) was the first Indian woman in a cabinet position (UP, 1937) and later became the first woman president of the UN General Assembly (1953). Begum Hazrat Mahal led the revolt in Awadh during 1857.
Economic Critique — Drain of Wealth Theory
The economic critique of British rule was one of the most significant intellectual contributions of the early Congress leaders and laid the foundation for the nationalist movement. Dadabhai Naoroji articulated the 'Drain of Wealth' theory in his seminal work 'Poverty and Un-British Rule in India' (1901) — arguing that a portion of India's national income was being drained to England in the form of Home Charges (salaries of British officials, pensions, military expenditure remitted to Britain), profits of British companies, and interest on loans. He estimated the annual drain at 200-300 million rupees. R.C. Dutt's 'The Economic History of India' (2 volumes, 1901-03) provided detailed documentation of the economic exploitation. Romesh Chunder Dutt argued that the British land revenue system, deindustrialization of cottage industries, and unequal trade policies were responsible for Indian poverty. M.G. Ranade's works on Indian economics influenced both Moderate and Extremist thinking. G.V. Joshi documented the contrast between rising exports and increasing famines. This economic nationalist analysis was crucial because it provided an intellectual framework for the anti-British movement — proving that poverty was not natural but a consequence of colonial exploitation. The Drain of Wealth theory remains one of the most frequently asked topics in UPSC Prelims and Mains.
Exam-Critical Distinctions
Key distinctions for competitive exams: (1) A.O. Hume was the ORGANIZER, not the president — W.C. Bonnerjee was the first president. (2) Purna Swaraj was adopted at Lahore (1929), NOT Calcutta (1906) — at Calcutta, 'Swaraj' meant self-government within the Empire. (3) The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre was on 13 April 1919 (Baisakhi), not Independence Day. (4) Salt March was from Sabarmati to DANDI (not Dharasana) — Dharasana was a separate salt satyagraha. (5) Non-Cooperation was called off after Chauri Chaura (1922); Civil Disobedience after Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931); Quit India continued without leaders (1942-44). (6) Gandhi attended ONLY the Second Round Table Conference. (7) Bhagat Singh threw bombs in the Assembly on 8 April 1929 — he was hanged on 23 March 1931 (NOT during the Quit India Movement). (8) INA was first formed by Captain Mohan Singh, then reorganized by Subhas Bose. (9) Congress won 7 of 11 provinces in 1937 elections; Muslim League won only 4.8% of total Muslim votes in those elections. (10) Direct Action Day (16 August 1946) was called by the Muslim League, not the Congress. (11) Sarojini Naidu was the first INDIAN woman Congress president (1925); Annie Besant was the first WOMAN president (1917, but she was Irish-born).
Relevant Exams
INC and the national movement are tested in virtually every government exam. UPSC Prelims asks about Congress sessions (which year, which president, which resolution), the Moderate-Extremist divide, Swadeshi Movement, and Home Rule. SSC and RRB exams test factual recall — first president, Safety Valve theory, Lal-Bal-Pal, Surat Split. Questions comparing Moderate and Extremist approaches are common. The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and its aftermath are frequently asked across all exams.