Anglo-Mysore, Anglo-Maratha & Anglo-Sikh Wars
Anglo-Mysore, Anglo-Maratha & Anglo-Sikh Wars
The Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767-1799), Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775-1818), and Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845-1849) were the three major military conflicts through which the British East India Company defeated the last powerful Indian kingdoms and established paramount authority over the subcontinent. These wars ended the independence of Mysore under Tipu Sultan, dismantled the Maratha Confederacy, and annexed the Sikh Empire of Punjab.
Key Dates
First Anglo-Mysore War — Hyder Ali defeats the British; Treaty of Madras (1769) restores status quo with mutual defence clause
Second Anglo-Mysore War — Hyder Ali initially successful; dies 1782; Treaty of Mangalore (1784) between Tipu Sultan and British restores status quo
Third Anglo-Mysore War — Cornwallis defeats Tipu Sultan; Treaty of Seringapatam (1792) — Tipu loses half his territory and pays 3.3 crore rupees
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War — Siege of Seringapatam; Tipu Sultan killed defending his capital (May 4, 1799); Mysore annexed, Wodeyar dynasty restored as vassal
First Anglo-Maratha War — Treaty of Salbai (1782) restores Madhav Rao Narayan as Peshwa; British gain Salsette; 20-year peace
Treaty of Bassein — Peshwa Baji Rao II accepts Subsidiary Alliance after defeat at Poona by Holkar; triggers Second Anglo-Maratha War
Second Anglo-Maratha War — Wellesley defeats Scindia (Assaye, Laswari), Bhonsle (Argaon); Subsidiary Alliance imposed on Peshwa
Third Anglo-Maratha War — final defeat of Peshwa Baji Rao II (Khadki, Koregaon), Holkar, Bhonsle; Maratha Confederacy dissolved; Peshwa pensioned at Bithur
Death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh triggers political instability in the Sikh Empire; rapid succession of rulers and growing power of the Khalsa army
First Anglo-Sikh War — Battles of Mudki, Ferozeshah, Sobraon; Treaty of Lahore (1846) — Sikhs cede Jalandhar Doab, pay 1.5 crore; Kashmir sold to Gulab Singh
Treaty of Amritsar — Kashmir sold to Gulab Singh for 75 lakh rupees; Treaty of Bhyrowal establishes Council of Regency under British supervision
Second Anglo-Sikh War — Battles of Chilianwala, Gujarat; Punjab annexed by Dalhousie (March 29, 1849); Koh-i-Noor diamond taken to Britain
Battle of Pollilur — Hyder Ali inflicts one of the worst defeats on the British in India; Colonel Baillie's force virtually annihilated
Convention of Wadgaon — humiliating British surrender near Pune to Mahadji Scindia's forces during the First Anglo-Maratha War
First & Second Anglo-Mysore Wars
The Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767-1799) pitted the Kingdom of Mysore, under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan, against the British East India Company and its allies (Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas). The First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-1769) was triggered by the Company's alliance with the Nizam against Hyder Ali. Hyder Ali, a military genius who had usurped power from the Wodeyar dynasty of Mysore, turned the tables — he defeated British forces, reached the gates of Madras, and forced the humiliating Treaty of Madras (1769), which included a mutual defence pact. The Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784) erupted when the British failed to honour this defence commitment when Hyder Ali was attacked by the Marathas. Hyder Ali, now allied with the Nizam and Marathas, inflicted severe defeats on the British — his victory at Pollilur (1780) was one of the worst British defeats in India. Hyder Ali died of cancer in 1782 during the war. His son Tipu Sultan continued the fight and signed the Treaty of Mangalore (1784) with the British — the last occasion on which an Indian power dictated terms to the Company. Warren Hastings criticized the Madras government's handling of both wars.
Third & Fourth Anglo-Mysore Wars — Fall of Tipu
The Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792) was precipitated by Tipu Sultan's attack on Travancore, a British ally. Governor-General Cornwallis personally led the British forces, allied with the Nizam and the Marathas. Tipu was defeated at the Siege of Seringapatam and forced to sign the Treaty of Seringapatam (1792) — he lost half his territory (divided among the three allies), paid an indemnity of 3.3 crore rupees, and surrendered two of his sons as hostages. The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) was the decisive conflict. Wellesley (Governor-General) sought to destroy Tipu, who had been corresponding with Napoleon (then in Egypt) and the French to form an anti-British alliance. Tipu also planted a 'Tree of Liberty' at Seringapatam and was a member of the Jacobin Club. The British, allied with the Nizam and Marathas, besieged Seringapatam. Tipu Sultan died fighting on May 4, 1799 — his body was found among the fallen at the Hoally Gate. With his death, Mysore was annexed (the Wodeyar dynasty was restored as a subsidiary ruler). Tipu is remembered for introducing innovations: rocket artillery (Mysorean rockets, which influenced Congreve rockets in Britain), modern coinage, a new calendar (Mauludi), and a system of land revenue reform. He called himself the 'Tiger of Mysore' and his throne was shaped like a tiger.
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782)
The Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775-1818) were fought between the British and the Maratha Confederacy — a loose alliance of five major Maratha powers: the Peshwa (Pune), Scindia (Gwalior), Holkar (Indore), Bhonsle (Nagpur), and Gaekwad (Baroda). The First Anglo-Maratha War was triggered by the Treaty of Surat (1775), in which the Bombay Council recognized Raghunath Rao (Raghoba) as Peshwa in exchange for cession of Salsette and Bassein. The Calcutta Council, led by Warren Hastings, initially repudiated this treaty but was drawn into the conflict. The war was marked by the Convention of Wadgaon (1779) — one of the most humiliating defeats of the British in India, where a British force was surrounded by Mahadaji Scindia's forces near Pune and forced to sign a disgraceful surrender treaty. However, Warren Hastings sent forces from Bengal under Captain Popham, who captured the fortress of Gwalior (1780). The war ended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782), negotiated by Mahadaji Scindia — the British recognized Madhav Rao Narayan as Peshwa, returned most conquered territories, and gained Salsette island. The treaty brought 20 years of peace between the British and Marathas.
Second & Third Anglo-Maratha Wars
The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805) was triggered by the Treaty of Bassein (1802), in which the fugitive Peshwa Baji Rao II accepted Subsidiary Alliance after his defeat at Poona by Holkar. Scindia and Bhonsle rejected this treaty as an affront to Maratha sovereignty. Governor-General Wellesley launched a two-pronged offensive: Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) defeated Scindia at the Battle of Assaye (1803, which Wellington later called 'the bloodiest battle for the numbers that I ever saw') and at Argaon; General Lake defeated Scindia's forces at Delhi, Agra, and Laswari. The Treaty of Surji-Arjungaon (1803) with Scindia and the Treaty of Deogaon (1803) with Bhonsle ceded vast territories to the British. The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818) was the final conflict. Peshwa Baji Rao II attacked the British Residency at Pune (Battle of Khadki, 1817). The British defeated the Peshwa at Khadki and Ashti, Holkar at Mahidpur, and Bhonsle at Sitabaldi and Nagpur. The Battle of Koregaon (1818), where a small British-Indian force (including Mahar soldiers) repelled a much larger Peshwa army, became historically significant. The Peshwa surrendered and was pensioned at Bithur (near Kanpur) — his adopted son, Nana Sahib, would later play a major role in the Revolt of 1857. The Maratha Confederacy was dissolved, and the British became the paramount power in India.
First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846)
The Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845-1849) were fought between the British and the Sikh Empire of Punjab, founded by Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1799-1839). After Ranjit Singh's death, the Sikh kingdom descended into political instability with rapid succession of rulers and the growing power of the Khalsa army. The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846) was triggered by the Sikh army crossing the Sutlej River into British territory. Key battles: Mudki (December 18, 1845 — British victory under General Gough), Ferozeshah (December 21-22, 1845 — the hardest-fought battle, nearly a British defeat), Aliwal (January 28, 1846 — British under Smith defeat Sikhs), and Sobraon (February 10, 1846 — decisive British victory; Sikh army routed crossing the Sutlej). The Treaty of Lahore (March 9, 1846) imposed harsh terms: the Sikhs ceded the Jalandhar Doab (land between Beas and Sutlej), paid an indemnity of 1.5 crore rupees, reduced their army to 20,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry, and accepted a British Resident at Lahore. Critically, the Treaty of Amritsar (March 16, 1846) sold Kashmir to Gulab Singh (Dogra chief of Jammu) for 75 lakh rupees — a transaction that shaped Kashmir's political destiny. The Sikh defeat was partly due to treachery by the Lahore Durbar factions (Lal Singh and Tej Singh) who betrayed military plans to the British.
Second Anglo-Sikh War & Annexation of Punjab
The Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849) erupted when Mulraj, the governor of Multan, revolted against British-imposed authority and killed two British officers (Vans Agnew and Anderson). Sher Singh, the Sikh commander sent to suppress the revolt, instead joined it, turning a local rebellion into a national Sikh uprising. Key battles: Ramnagar (November 22, 1848 — indecisive), Chilianwala (January 13, 1849 — a pyrrhic British victory with extremely heavy casualties; General Gough was nearly recalled for the high losses), and Gujarat (February 21, 1849 — decisive British victory under Gough with superior artillery). The Sikh army was routed, and the Afghan contingent under Dost Muhammad retreated to Afghanistan. Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General, annexed Punjab outright on March 29, 1849 — it was incorporated into British India without even the pretence of a subsidiary arrangement. The young Maharaja Dalip Singh was deposed, given a pension, and later sent to England where he converted to Christianity. The Koh-i-Noor diamond, the famed gem from the Sikh treasury, was taken from Dalip Singh and presented to Queen Victoria (it now sits in the Tower of London). The Punjab annexation marked the completion of British territorial expansion in India — no independent Indian state of significance remained.
Tipu Sultan — Innovations & Legacy
Tipu Sultan (1782-1799) is one of the most complex and debated figures in Indian history. His military innovations were remarkable: Mysorean rockets (iron-cased rockets with a range of 1.5-2 km) — after Seringapatam, the British studied captured rockets, leading to William Congreve's development of the Congreve rocket used in the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812 (the 'rockets' red glare' in the American national anthem may reference these). Tipu introduced new revenue systems, promoted sericulture (silk production) in Mysore, established state trading companies modelled on European lines, and planted a 'Tree of Liberty' following the French Revolution. He maintained diplomatic relations with France, Turkey, Arabia, and Afghanistan. His correspondence with Napoleon (requesting French military assistance against the British) was intercepted by the British and used as justification for the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. Historical debates: Hindu nationalists criticize Tipu for temple destructions and forced conversions in Malabar and Coorg; defenders cite his donations to Hindu temples (particularly the Sringeri Sharada Peetham) and the presence of Hindu officers in his administration. UPSC treats him as a significant anti-colonial ruler and military innovator.
Hyder Ali — Rise and Military Genius
Hyder Ali (c. 1720-1782) was not born into royalty but rose through the ranks of the Mysorean army through sheer military talent. He was originally a soldier in the service of the Wodeyar rulers of Mysore. By 1761, he had effectively usurped power from the weak Wodeyar king Krishnaraja II, though he maintained the Wodeyar ruler as a figurehead. Hyder Ali modernized the Mysorean army along European lines, employing French officers as military advisors. He was the first Indian ruler to use iron-cased rockets in warfare. He understood the significance of controlling the Malabar coast and its lucrative spice trade, and his conquests of Malabar, Bednore (Nagar), and Sira brought him enormous revenue. His alliance-building skills were impressive — he formed and dissolved alliances with the Marathas, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and even the French as strategic needs dictated. His victory at Pollilur (1780) during the Second Anglo-Mysore War was among the most devastating defeats suffered by the British in India — Colonel Baillie's force of approximately 3,800 was virtually annihilated, with Baillie himself taken prisoner. Hyder Ali died of a cancerous growth on his back on December 7, 1782, during the Second Anglo-Mysore War, leaving his son Tipu Sultan to continue the struggle against the British.
Mahadji Scindia and the Maratha Revival
Mahadji Scindia (1730-1794) was the most remarkable Maratha statesman of the late 18th century and played a pivotal role in the First Anglo-Maratha War. As the head of the Scindia house of Gwalior, he was the primary architect of the Treaty of Salbai (1782), which brought twenty years of peace between the Marathas and the British. During the Convention of Wadgaon (1779), it was Mahadji's forces that surrounded and humiliated the British army near Pune. After the First Anglo-Maratha War, Mahadji became the most powerful Maratha chief and effectively became the regent of the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II in Delhi (1784). He reorganized the Maratha army using the French military officer Benoit de Boigne, creating disciplined infantry brigades armed with modern muskets and supported by artillery. His control over the Mughal Emperor gave the Marathas legitimacy and influence across northern India. He collected tribute from Rajput states, controlled Delhi, and was recognized as the 'Deputy Regent of the Empire.' Mahadji died in 1794, and his successors Daulat Rao Scindia and later Jayaji Rao proved unable to maintain his legacy. The Scindia army that Arthur Wellesley faced at Assaye (1803) was partly a product of Mahadji's military modernization, explaining why Wellington found it such a formidable challenge.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Sikh Empire
Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780-1839), known as the 'Lion of Punjab' (Sher-e-Punjab), unified the fragmented Sikh Misls (confederacies) into a powerful centralized state — the Sikh Empire (1799-1849). He captured Lahore in 1799 and was crowned Maharaja in 1801. His empire stretched from the Sutlej River in the east to the Khyber Pass in the west, and from Kashmir in the north to Multan in the south. Ranjit Singh created one of the most formidable armies in Asia — the Khalsa army — modernized by European officers: Jean-Francois Allard (French), Paolo Avitabile (Italian), and Alexander Gardner (American). His army included disciplined infantry, cavalry, and a powerful artillery corps. Ranjit Singh never crossed the Sutlej River, respecting the Treaty of Amritsar (1809) with the British, which recognized the Sutlej as the boundary. He maintained cordial relations with the British throughout his life. His court included the famous diamond Koh-i-Noor and the great Sikh treasury. Ranjit Singh was notably secular — his administration included Hindus (Dhian Singh, Gulab Singh as ministers), Muslims (Fakir Azizuddin as foreign minister), and Sikhs in positions of power. His death in 1839 triggered a succession crisis — within six years, four rulers were assassinated, and the Khalsa army became increasingly autonomous, eventually provoking the First Anglo-Sikh War.
The Maratha Confederacy — Structure and Internal Rivalries
The Maratha Confederacy was a unique political structure that both enabled and ultimately undermined Maratha power. After the death of Aurangzeb (1707) and the Maratha resurgence under the Peshwas, the Maratha polity evolved into a loose confederacy of five major powers: the Peshwa (based in Pune, the nominal head), Scindia (Gwalior), Holkar (Indore), Bhonsle (Nagpur), and Gaekwad (Baroda). Each confederate was virtually independent, maintaining their own armies, revenue systems, and diplomatic relations. The Peshwa's authority was often challenged by the confederates — the rivalry between Scindia and Holkar was particularly destructive. This internal disunity was the primary cause of Maratha defeats. During the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05), Scindia and Bhonsle fought the British while Holkar initially remained neutral (and then fought his own separate war). The Gaekwad of Baroda actually allied with the British. The failure to present a united front allowed the British to defeat each confederate separately — the classic strategy of divide and conquer. The Treaty of Bassein (1802) was the turning point — when Peshwa Baji Rao II accepted British protection, it split the confederacy irrevocably. The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-18) saw the final, piecemeal destruction of the confederacy — the Peshwa, Holkar, Bhonsle, and even the Pindaris were defeated in separate campaigns.
Key Battles — Detailed Analysis
The Anglo-Wars produced several battles of great strategic significance that are frequently tested in examinations. Battle of Pollilur (1780): Hyder Ali's cavalry and rocket forces destroyed Colonel Baillie's column near Kanchipuram — it was the worst British defeat in India until Chilianwala. Battle of Porto Novo (1781): Sir Eyre Coote defeated Hyder Ali, partially restoring British prestige in the Carnatic. Convention of Wadgaon (1779): Not a battle but a British capitulation — Colonel Cockburn's force was surrounded by the Marathas near Pune, forced to sign humiliating terms surrendering territory and hostages. Warren Hastings repudiated the Convention and sent fresh forces. Battle of Assaye (September 23, 1803): Arthur Wellesley with 7,000 troops defeated Scindia's force of 40,000 (including Scindia's well-trained infantry brigades organized by French officers). Wellington lost 1,584 men — a casualty rate of over 22%. He later said Assaye was a harder fight than Waterloo. Battle of Laswari (November 1, 1803): General Lake defeated Scindia's best infantry brigade under Louis Bourquin; this battle effectively ended Scindia's military power. Battle of Ferozeshah (December 21-22, 1845): Perhaps the most desperate battle of the Anglo-Sikh Wars — British forces nearly broke on the first day and spent the night surrounded by Sikh troops. Only reinforcements the next morning turned the tide. Battle of Chilianwala (January 13, 1849): British casualties were so heavy (2,446, including 602 dead) that General Gough was nearly recalled. Three British regiments lost their colors (a devastating disgrace), though one was later recovered.
The Role of Indian Allies and Treachery
A recurring theme across all three sets of wars was the critical role of Indian allies fighting alongside the British, and instances of treachery that undermined Indian resistance. In the Anglo-Mysore Wars, the British consistently allied with the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas against Mysore. In the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, Mir Sadiq (Tipu's prime minister) and Mir Qamar-ud-Din (the commandant of the Lal Mahal fortress) betrayed Tipu by withdrawing troops from critical positions and opening a water gate during the siege of Seringapatam. Tipu's confidant Purnaiya cooperated with the British after Tipu's death and helped install the Wodeyar dynasty. In the Anglo-Maratha Wars, the British exploited rivalries between the confederates — the Gaekwad of Baroda was a consistent British ally. In the First Anglo-Sikh War, two senior Sikh commanders, Lal Singh (Wazir) and Tej Singh (commander-in-chief), systematically betrayed the Khalsa army — Lal Singh allegedly provided battle plans to the British Resident Henry Lawrence, and Tej Singh reportedly ordered a premature retreat at Ferozeshah and broke the boat bridge at Sobraon to prevent Sikh reinforcement. The British later rewarded both traitors. The Dogra chief Gulab Singh played a dubious role throughout — he held back his forces during the war and was rewarded with the kingdom of Kashmir. These betrayals are critical for understanding why numerically and technically capable Indian armies were defeated.
Treaties and Their Long-term Consequences
The treaties ending these wars had profound and lasting consequences for Indian political geography. Treaty of Madras (1769): Notable for its mutual defence clause — the British violated this by not aiding Hyder Ali against the Marathas, directly causing the Second Anglo-Mysore War. Treaty of Mangalore (1784): The last treaty in which an Indian power dictated terms — Tipu Sultan negotiated from a position of relative strength. Treaty of Seringapatam (1792): Tipu lost half his territory, but critically the treaty also forced him to send two of his sons (Abdul Khaliq and Muiz-ud-din) as hostages to Cornwallis — a personal humiliation that deepened Tipu's resolve for revenge. Treaty of Salbai (1782): Its significance lay in the 20-year peace it secured — this allowed the British to consolidate control over Bengal undisturbed. Treaty of Bassein (1802): Often considered the most consequential treaty of the period — it effectively ended Maratha sovereignty by subjecting the Peshwa to British Subsidiary Alliance. Treaty of Surji-Arjungaon (1803) and Treaty of Deogaon (1803): These compelled Scindia and Bhonsle to cede vast territories (including Delhi, Agra, and much of central India) and accept British Residents. Treaty of Lahore (1846) and Treaty of Amritsar (1846): The sale of Kashmir to Gulab Singh for 75 lakh rupees created the Dogra-ruled princely state of Jammu and Kashmir — a decision whose consequences persist to this day. The Treaty of Bhyrowal (December 1846) further tightened British control by establishing a British-supervised Council of Regency in Lahore.
Impact on Indian State Formation
The Anglo-Wars fundamentally reshaped the political map of India. Mysore was reduced from a powerful independent kingdom to a British-supervised princely state (the Wodeyar dynasty ruled as subsidiaries until 1947). The Maratha Confederacy, which at its peak (c. 1760) controlled much of the subcontinent, was completely dismantled — the Peshwa was abolished, and the remaining Maratha houses (Scindia, Holkar, Gaekwad, Bhonsle) became princely states under British paramountcy. The Sikh Empire was the last major Indian power to be annexed — its destruction marked the completion of British territorial expansion in the subcontinent. New princely states were created as rewards for British allies: Gulab Singh received Kashmir (1846), the Wadiyar dynasty was restored in Mysore (1799), and various Rajput states were confirmed as British allies. The Pindari War (1817-18), fought simultaneously with the Third Anglo-Maratha War, eliminated the irregular Pindari cavalry bands that had terrorized central India. The annexation of Sindh by Charles Napier (1843) followed a similar pattern of military conquest. By 1849, British paramountcy was complete — no Indian state could conduct foreign relations independently or maintain military forces beyond what the British permitted.
Comparative Analysis & Exam Significance
The three sets of wars share common patterns: internal divisions and treachery weakened Indian powers (Mir Sadiq and Mir Jafar-like betrayals in Mysore, Maratha inter-confederacy rivalries, Sikh court intrigues), the British exploited Indian disunity through diplomacy and alliance-building, and superior British discipline, logistics, and diplomacy (rather than technology alone) proved decisive. Key exam points: Treaty of Mangalore (1784, last Indian-dictated treaty), Treaty of Bassein (1802, imposed Subsidiary Alliance on Peshwa), Treaty of Seringapatam (1792, Tipu loses half territory), Battles of Tarain vs Panipat vs Anglo wars (chronological sorting questions), Convention of Wadgaon (1779, British humiliation), Battle of Assaye (1803, Wellington's toughest battle), Koh-i-Noor diamond, Mysorean rockets, Baji Rao II pensioned at Bithur (connection to 1857 Revolt through Nana Sahib), sale of Kashmir to Gulab Singh (1846). UPSC Prelims frequently asks about matching wars with treaties, identifying Governor-Generals associated with each war (Cornwallis-3rd Mysore, Wellesley-4th Mysore/2nd Maratha, Hastings-1st/3rd Maratha, Dalhousie-2nd Sikh), and understanding the Subsidiary Alliance system.
Relevant Exams
One of the most heavily tested topics in UPSC Prelims — matching wars with treaties and Governor-Generals, chronological ordering of battles, Subsidiary Alliance mechanism, and Tipu Sultan's innovations. SSC/RRB test basic battle-treaty pairs and key figures. UPSC Mains GS-I asks analytical questions on the causes of Indian military defeats, British diplomatic strategies, and the significance of specific treaties.