Buddhism & Jainism
Buddhism & Jainism
Buddhism and Jainism are two major heterodox (Nastika) schools that emerged in the 6th century BCE as a reaction against the rigid Vedic ritualism and Brahmanical orthodoxy. Founded by Gautama Buddha and Vardhamana Mahavira respectively, both preached non-violence (ahimsa), rejected Vedic authority, and offered paths to liberation accessible to all social classes.
Key Dates
Birth of Vardhamana Mahavira (24th Tirthankara of Jainism) at Kundagrama near Vaishali, in the Jnatrika clan
Birth of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) at Lumbini (modern Nepal) in the Shakya clan of Kshatriyas
Enlightenment (Nirvana) of Buddha at Bodh Gaya under a Peepal (Bodhi) tree on the banks of the Niranjana (Falgu) river
Death (Nirvana/Kaivalya) of Mahavira at Pawapuri near Rajgir (Bihar) at the age of 72
Mahaparinirvana of Buddha at Kushinagar (UP) at the age of 80; First Buddhist Council held at Rajgriha under Ajatashatru
Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali — schism between Sthaviravadins (Theravadins) and Mahasanghikas
Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra under Ashoka — compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka; missions sent abroad
Fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalvana (Kashmir) under Kanishka — division into Hinayana and Mahayana sects
Jain schism into Digambara and Shvetambara — caused by Magadha famine; Bhadrabahu migrates south with Chandragupta Maurya
Second Jain Council at Valabhi (Gujarat) under Devaradhi Kshamasramana — final compilation of the 12 Angas and 12 Upangas
Kharavela of Kalinga — great Jain patron; his Hathigumpha inscription describes military conquests and patronage of Jainism
Indo-Greek king Menander (Milinda) debates with Buddhist monk Nagasena — recorded in the Milinda Panho (Questions of Milinda)
Nagarjuna founds the Madhyamika (Shunyavada) school of Mahayana Buddhism — concept of Shunyata (emptiness/voidness)
Nalanda University founded in Bihar — the most famous Buddhist center of learning; attracted scholars from across Asia until its destruction c. 1200 CE
Life of Buddha & Core Teachings
Siddhartha Gautama was born in the Shakya clan at Lumbini (c. 563 BCE). His father was Suddhodana (chief of Shakyas) and mother was Mayadevi (who died seven days after his birth; he was raised by his stepmother Mahaprajapati Gautami). He married Yashodhara and had a son named Rahula. At age 29, he left home (Mahabhinishkramana/Great Renunciation) after witnessing four sights — an old man, a sick man, a dead body, and an ascetic. He attained Enlightenment at age 35 at Bodh Gaya and gave his first sermon (Dharmachakrapravartana — Turning the Wheel of Law) at the Deer Park in Sarnath to five ascetics. Core teachings: Four Noble Truths (dukkha/suffering, samudaya/cause of suffering is desire, nirodha/cessation of suffering, magga/Eightfold Path), the Middle Path (avoiding extremes), Dependent Origination (pratityasamutpada), and the Three Marks of Existence (anicca/impermanence, dukkha/suffering, anatta/no-self).
Buddhist Councils & Scriptures
Four major Buddhist Councils were held: First (c. 483 BCE) at Saptaparni Cave, Rajgriha, under Mahakassapa — Ananda compiled Sutta Pitaka and Upali compiled Vinaya Pitaka; presided over by King Ajatashatru. Second (c. 383 BCE) at Vaishali under Sabakami — dispute over monastic rules led to the first major schism between Sthaviravadins (orthodox) and Mahasanghikas (liberal). Third (c. 250 BCE) at Pataliputra under Moggaliputta Tissa — patronized by Ashoka; Abhidhamma Pitaka compiled; heretical monks expelled; Buddhist missionaries sent to Sri Lanka (Mahinda and Sanghamitta), Central Asia, and Southeast Asia. Fourth (c. 72 CE) at Kundalvana, Kashmir, under Vasumitra (vice-chair: Ashvaghosha) — patronized by Kanishka; Buddhism formally split into Hinayana and Mahayana. The Tripitaka (Three Baskets) — Vinaya (monastic rules), Sutta (discourses), and Abhidhamma (philosophy) — form the canonical Pali literature.
Buddhist Sects: Hinayana, Mahayana & Vajrayana
Hinayana (Theravada/Lesser Vehicle) follows the original teachings of Buddha strictly; considers Buddha a great teacher, not a god; aims for individual salvation (Arhat ideal); scriptures in Pali; no idol worship; prevalent in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos. Mahayana (Greater Vehicle) believes in the divinity of Buddha; aims for universal salvation through Bodhisattvas (beings who delay their own nirvana to help others); scriptures in Sanskrit; allows idol worship; prevalent in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Nepal, Tibet. Vajrayana (Diamond Vehicle/Tantric Buddhism) emerged later, emphasizing magical rituals, mantras, and tantric practices; prevalent in Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan. Important Mahayana philosophers: Nagarjuna (Shunyavada/Madhyamika school) and Asanga/Vasubandhu (Yogachara/Vijnanavada school).
Life of Mahavira & Jain Teachings
Vardhamana Mahavira was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali (c. 599 BCE) in the Jnatrika clan. His father was Siddhartha (a Kshatriya chief) and mother was Trishala (sister of Chetaka, the Lichchhavi chief). He married Yashoda and had a daughter named Priyadarshana (Anojja). At age 30, he renounced the world after the death of his parents. After 12 years of severe penance, he attained Kaivalya (supreme knowledge) at Jrimbhikagrama on the banks of the Rijupalika river, under a Sal tree. He was the 24th Tirthankara; the first was Rishabhadeva (mentioned in the Rig Veda) and the 23rd was Parshvanatha (historical figure, c. 872-772 BCE, from Varanasi). Core teachings: Triratna (Three Jewels) — Right Faith (Samyak Darshana), Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana), Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra); Five Great Vows (Pancha Mahavratas): Ahimsa, Satya (truth), Asteya (non-stealing), Aparigraha (non-possession), and Brahmacharya (celibacy — added by Mahavira to Parshvanatha's four vows).
Jain Philosophy & Sects
Jain philosophy rests on key doctrines: Anekantavada (many-sidedness of truth), Syadvada (doctrine of may be/conditional assertion — the seven-fold predication), and Karma theory (karma as a physical substance that binds the soul). Jainism rejected the authority of the Vedas and the concept of a creator God but accepted the existence of the soul (jiva) and matter (ajiva). Around 300 BCE, a great famine in Magadha caused a split: Digambara ('sky-clad'/nude, led by Bhadrabahu who migrated south to Shravanabelagola with Chandragupta Maurya) and Shvetambara ('white-clad', led by Sthulabhadra who stayed in Magadha). The first Jain Council was held at Pataliputra (c. 300 BCE) under Sthulabhadra — Shvetambaras compiled the 12 Angas (canonical texts). The second Jain Council was held at Valabhi in Gujarat (c. 512 CE) under Devaradhi Kshamasramana — final compilation of the 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.
Spread & Patronage
Buddhism received royal patronage from Bimbisara and Ajatashatru of Magadha, and especially from Ashoka, who made it a world religion by sending missionaries to Sri Lanka, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia. Kanishka (Kushan dynasty) patronized Mahayana Buddhism and held the Fourth Buddhist Council. Great Buddhist universities: Nalanda (Bihar, 5th-12th century CE), Vikramashila (Bihar), Taxila (Gandhara), Vallabhi (Gujarat), and Odantapuri. Jainism was patronized by Chandragupta Maurya (who became a Jain monk), the Kalinga king Kharavela (1st century BCE), and several Chalukya and Rashtrakuta kings in South India. Jainism spread significantly in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. Buddhist decline in India was caused by revival of Hinduism, internal decay, loss of royal patronage, and the Turkish invasions that destroyed monasteries.
Buddhist Art and Architecture
Buddhism produced some of the finest artistic traditions in Indian history. Stupas: hemispherical structures housing relics of Buddha or important monks — the Great Stupa at Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh, originally built by Ashoka, enlarged during the Shunga period, 2nd-1st century BCE) is the best-preserved example with its four ornate toranas (gateways). Other important stupas include those at Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh, with its distinctive narrative sculptures), and Dharmarajika Stupa at Sarnath. Rock-cut cave architecture: the Chaitya halls (prayer halls with apsidal plan and stupa at the far end) and Viharas (monastic residences) at Ajanta (2nd century BCE - 5th century CE, famous for its mural paintings depicting Jataka tales and life of Buddha), Ellora (Cave 10 — the Vishwakarma Cave is a Buddhist chaitya), Karla (the largest rock-cut chaitya in India), and Bhaja (early Buddhist caves near Pune). Buddhist sculpture evolved through distinct phases: aniconic representation (Buddha depicted only through symbols — Bodhi tree, lotus, footprints, wheel, empty throne) in early art at Sanchi and Bharhut; the first anthropomorphic images of Buddha appeared in the Gandhara school (Greco-Roman influenced, stucco and stone, region around Peshawar and Taxila) and Mathura school (indigenous Indian style, red sandstone, influenced by Kushana period art). The Sarnath Buddha (Gupta period, 5th century CE) — showing Buddha in the Dharmachakrapravartana mudra — is considered the finest Buddhist sculpture.
Jain Art, Architecture and Temples
Jain architecture has its own distinctive traditions. Dilwara Temples at Mount Abu, Rajasthan (11th-13th century CE) — the Vimal Vasahi temple (1031 CE, built by Vimal Shah) and Luna Vasahi temple (1230 CE, built by Tejpal and Vastupal) are renowned for their exquisite white marble carvings with incredibly intricate latticework that surpasses any Hindu or Buddhist temple. Ranakpur Jain Temple (15th century, Rajasthan) contains 1,444 uniquely carved marble pillars, no two alike. Gommateshwara statue at Shravanabelagola, Karnataka (983 CE) — a 57-foot monolithic statue of Bahubali (son of Rishabhadeva, the first Tirthankara), commissioned by the Ganga dynasty minister Chamundaraya; the Mahamastakabhisheka ceremony (head-anointing with milk, saffron, and other substances) is held once every 12 years. Jain cave temples at Udayagiri and Khandagiri (Odisha, 1st century BCE, commissioned by King Kharavela) — the Hathigumpha inscription provides important historical information. The Jain temples at Khajuraho (10th-11th century) belong to the Chandela period. Jain manuscript painting (particularly in Gujarat and Rajasthan from the 11th century onwards) is an important artistic tradition — the Kalpasutra manuscripts with their stylized figures and gold leaf backgrounds are significant examples of Indian miniature painting.
The Eightfold Path — Detailed Breakdown
The Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya Atthangika Magga) is the fourth of the Four Noble Truths and constitutes the practical path to the cessation of suffering. It is grouped into three categories: (1) Prajna (Wisdom): Right View (Samma Ditthi — understanding the Four Noble Truths, karma, and the nature of reality) and Right Intention (Samma Sankappa — renunciation, goodwill, harmlessness). (2) Sila (Moral Conduct): Right Speech (Samma Vaca — abstaining from lying, harsh speech, slander, idle chatter), Right Action (Samma Kammanta — abstaining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct), and Right Livelihood (Samma Ajiva — earning a living without harming others; occupations like arms dealing, slave trading, and selling intoxicants are prohibited). (3) Samadhi (Mental Discipline): Right Effort (Samma Vayama — preventing unwholesome states and cultivating wholesome states), Right Mindfulness (Samma Sati — awareness of body, feelings, mind, and mental objects), and Right Concentration (Samma Samadhi — developing deep states of mental absorption/jhana). The Middle Path — avoiding the extremes of sensual indulgence and severe asceticism — is the overarching principle. This path is distinct from the Jain emphasis on severe austerity and penance. UPSC occasionally asks about specific components of the Eightfold Path.
Jain Ethics and the Concept of Karma
Jain ethics are among the most stringent of any religious tradition. The concept of Ahimsa (non-violence) is taken to extreme lengths: strict Jains sweep the ground before them to avoid stepping on insects, wear mouth covers (muhpatti) to avoid inhaling organisms, and practice dietary restrictions (avoiding root vegetables because uprooting them kills organisms). The Five Great Vows (Pancha Mahavratas) for monks are: Ahimsa, Satya (truth), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy), and Aparigraha (non-possession). Laypersons follow modified versions called Anu-vratas (small vows). Jain karma theory differs fundamentally from Hindu and Buddhist concepts: in Jainism, karma is not merely a metaphysical concept but a physical, material substance (karmic matter or karma pudgala) that binds the soul (jiva). Eight types of karma are identified: Jnanavarniya (knowledge-obscuring), Darshanavarniya (faith-obscuring), Vedaniya (feeling-producing), Mohaniya (deluding), Ayushya (lifespan-determining), Nama (body-determining), Gotra (status-determining), and Antaraya (obstacle-creating). The path to liberation (moksha) involves stopping the influx of karma (samvara), shedding existing karma (nirjara), and ultimately achieving the state of kevala jnana (omniscience/kaivalya). Sallekhana (voluntary fasting unto death) is the highest form of Jain asceticism — Chandragupta Maurya is said to have died by sallekhana at Shravanabelagola.
Buddhist Universities and Centers of Learning
Buddhism established some of the world's earliest residential universities. Nalanda (Bihar, founded c. 5th century CE, possibly by Kumaragupta I of the Gupta dynasty) — the most famous; at its peak had 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers; studied all branches of knowledge including Buddhist philosophy, logic, medicine, astronomy, and Hindu Vedas; Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang (7th century) and Yijing (7th century) left detailed accounts; destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khalji's forces around 1200 CE — reportedly the library burned for three months. Vikramashila (Bihar, founded by King Dharmapala of the Pala dynasty, 8th century) — the second most important Buddhist university; produced Atisha Dipankara, who revived Buddhism in Tibet; also destroyed by Khalji. Taxila (Gandhara, in modern Pakistan) — predated Buddhism but became an important Buddhist center; Chanakya and Panini studied here; it was not a university in the organized sense of Nalanda but a center of learning. Vallabhi (Gujarat, 5th-8th century CE) — important center for both Buddhist and Brahmanical learning; hosted the Second Jain Council (c. 512 CE). Odantapuri (Bihar, founded by Dharmapala of the Pala dynasty) — served as a model for the Tibetan monastery at Samye. Somapura Mahavihara (Bangladesh, founded by Dharmapala) — one of the largest monasteries in the Indian subcontinent; UNESCO World Heritage Site. The destruction of these centers by Turkish invaders is considered a major cause of Buddhism's decline in India.
Decline of Buddhism in India and Its Causes
Buddhism, which was a dominant religious force in India for over a millennium, gradually declined from the 7th-8th century CE and was virtually extinct in India by the 13th century. Causes of decline: (1) Revival of Hinduism — the Bhakti movement and the philosophical responses of Shankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, and others provided compelling alternatives within Hinduism; Shankaracharya is sometimes called 'Prachhanna Bauddha' (crypto-Buddhist) because his Advaita philosophy absorbed many Buddhist ideas. (2) Loss of distinctive identity — Mahayana Buddhism had adopted many Hindu practices (idol worship, rituals, mantras) and Vajrayana introduced tantric elements, making Buddhism less distinguishable from Hinduism. (3) Loss of royal patronage — the Gupta emperors, while tolerant of Buddhism, were primarily Vaishnavites; the decline of the Pala dynasty (last major Buddhist patrons) in the 12th century was devastating. (4) Internal decay — monastic Buddhism became increasingly scholastic, ritualistic, and divorced from the laity; monasteries accumulated wealth and lost spiritual vitality. (5) Turkish invasions (12th-13th century) — the destruction of Nalanda, Vikramashila, and Odantapuri by Bakhtiyar Khalji (c. 1200 CE) destroyed Buddhism's institutional infrastructure. Unlike Hinduism, which had no centralized institutions, Buddhism depended on monasteries and universities. (6) In Southeast Asia and East Asia, Buddhism continued to flourish, carried by missionaries and traders. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's conversion to Buddhism in 1956 (Navayana Buddhism) marked a modern revival in India.
Buddhism and Jainism in Tamil Nadu and South India
Both Buddhism and Jainism had deep roots in South India, predating the Bhakti movement by several centuries. Buddhism: Kanchipuram was a major Buddhist center — Dignaga (5th century CE), the founder of Buddhist logic (Pramana), was born near Kanchi. Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh) were major Mahayana and later Vajrayana centers; the Amaravati stupa (2nd century CE, Satavahana period) is among the finest examples of Buddhist narrative art. The Pallava king Narasimhavarman I patronized a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam built by the Srivijaya king. The Chola period Buddhist bronze from Nagapattinam (11th century) shows Buddhist presence persisted in Tamil Nadu into the medieval period. Jainism: Jainism thrived in Tamil Nadu during the Sangam Age — Jain monks are believed to have introduced the Brahmi script to South India. The Jain epic Silappadikaram (by Ilango Adigal, a Jain prince) is one of the five great Tamil epics. Tamil Jain literature includes the Tirukkural (attributed to Thiruvalluvar, though his religious affiliation is debated), Naladiyar, and Seevaka Chintamani. The Sittanavasal cave (Pudukottai district, 7th-9th century CE) contains important Jain paintings depicting a Samavasarana (divine preaching hall). The Ganga dynasty of Talakadu (Karnataka) and the early Kadamba dynasty were important Jain patrons. Shravanabelagola (Karnataka) became the most important Digambara Jain center, where Chandragupta Maurya is said to have ended his life by sallekhana.
Dependent Origination and Buddhist Metaphysics
Pratityasamutpada (Dependent Origination/Conditioned Arising) is perhaps the most profound of Buddha's teachings and the philosophical foundation of Buddhism. It states that all phenomena arise in dependence on causes and conditions — nothing exists independently or permanently. The twelve links (nidanas) of Dependent Origination form a chain: (1) Avidya (ignorance) leads to (2) Samskara (mental formations/karmic imprints), which leads to (3) Vijnana (consciousness), then (4) Namarupa (name-and-form/mind-body complex), (5) Shadayatana (six sense bases — eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, mind), (6) Sparsha (contact), (7) Vedana (feeling), (8) Trishna (craving), (9) Upadana (clinging), (10) Bhava (becoming), (11) Jati (birth), and (12) Jaramarana (aging-and-death). This cycle explains the process of rebirth without a permanent soul (Anatta). Breaking the chain at any point — particularly at ignorance and craving — leads to liberation. Nagarjuna's Madhyamika philosophy extended this into the concept of Shunyata (emptiness) — since all things arise dependently, they lack intrinsic existence (svabhava). The Yogachara school (founded by Asanga and Vasubandhu) alternatively argued that consciousness (vijnapti) is the fundamental reality, and external objects are projections of the mind. The Sautrantika and Vaibhashika schools of Hinayana Buddhism offered more realist positions. UPSC has tested the twelve nidanas and the philosophical differences between these schools.
Exam-Critical Distinctions and Common Traps
Several distinctions are frequently tested: (1) Buddha was born at Lumbini (Nepal), NOT Bodh Gaya — Bodh Gaya is where he attained enlightenment. (2) The Buddhist Triratna (Three Jewels) are Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha — the Jain Triratna are Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct — do NOT confuse. (3) Buddha taught the 'Middle Path' (avoiding extremes); Jainism emphasizes severe austerity — they are fundamentally different approaches. (4) Anatta (no-self) is Buddhist; Jainism ACCEPTS the soul (Jiva). (5) The Eightfold Path belongs to Buddhism; the Five Mahavratas belong to Jainism. (6) Anekantavada (many-sidedness of truth) and Syadvada (doctrine of may be) are JAIN concepts, not Buddhist. (7) The first Tirthankara is Rishabhadeva (mentioned in the Rig Veda), the 23rd is Parshvanatha, the 24th is Mahavira — Parshvanatha prescribed four vows, Mahavira added the fifth (Brahmacharya). (8) Chandragupta Maurya became a JAIN monk (not Buddhist); ASHOKA became a Buddhist. (9) The Gandhara school of art (Greco-Roman style, stucco/stone) is different from the Mathura school (indigenous, red sandstone). (10) Hinayana scriptures are in Pali; Mahayana in Sanskrit. (11) The Sarnath Pillar with its four lions (Ashoka's Lion Capital) is India's national emblem — it symbolizes the Dharmachakrapravartana.
Relevant Exams
Among the most heavily tested topics in all competitive exams. UPSC Prelims regularly asks about Buddhist Councils (who presided, where, what was decided), the differences between Hinayana and Mahayana, and Jain philosophical concepts (Anekantavada, Syadvada). SSC/RRB focus on factual recall — birth/death places of Buddha and Mahavira, Triratna, Four Noble Truths, and the names of the Tirthankaras. Comparison between Buddhism and Jainism is a perennial favorite.