Sustainable Development & Climate
Sustainable Development & Environment
Environmental economics, carbon markets, climate finance, circular economy, SDGs, Paris Agreement, NAPCC missions, and India's sustainable development framework.
Key Dates
UN Conference on Human Environment (Stockholm) — India participated; led to creation of MoEF
Brundtland Report defined sustainable development — "meeting present needs without compromising future generations"
Rio Earth Summit — UNFCCC, CBD, Agenda 21 adopted
Kyoto Protocol adopted — binding emission reduction targets for developed countries (Annex I parties)
Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development — Plan of Implementation
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) launched with 8 missions
Rio+20 Conference — agreed to develop SDGs; Green Economy concept promoted
Paris Agreement — limit warming to 1.5-2°C; 17 SDGs adopted under 2030 Agenda
COP26 Glasgow — India announced net-zero by 2070; Glasgow Climate Pact; Panchamrit pledges
India updated NDC — 50% non-fossil fuel energy, 45% carbon intensity reduction by 2030; COP27 Loss & Damage Fund
COP28 Dubai — first Global Stocktake; agreement to "transition away from fossil fuels"; India's Green Credit Programme launched
COP29 Baku — New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) of $300 billion/year by 2035 for climate finance
Sustainable Development — Core Framework
Sustainable Development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland Commission, 1987). Three Pillars: Economic growth, Social inclusion, Environmental protection. The concept evolved from the 1972 Stockholm Conference (which first linked environment with development) to the 1992 Rio Earth Summit (which established the UNFCCC, CBD, and Agenda 21). India's approach centres on "Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities" (CBDR-RC) — developed countries should bear greater burden due to historical emissions. India's per capita emissions (~2.4 tonnes CO2) are well below the global average (~4.7 tonnes) and far below the US (~14 tonnes). India's total emissions are 3rd largest (after China, US) but per capita emissions remain low. Climate Justice: India advocates that developing countries need fiscal space, technology transfer, and capacity building to achieve low-carbon growth without sacrificing development goals.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
The 17 SDGs were adopted in September 2015 under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, replacing the 8 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). They have 169 targets and 232 unique indicators. Key SDGs relevant for India: SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 3 (Good Health), SDG 4 (Quality Education), SDG 5 (Gender Equality), SDG 6 (Clean Water), SDG 7 (Affordable Clean Energy), SDG 13 (Climate Action), SDG 15 (Life on Land). NITI Aayog publishes the SDG India Index which ranks states and UTs — Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Himachal Pradesh are consistent top performers; Bihar, Jharkhand, and UP rank lower. India's composite SDG score has improved from 57 (2018) to 71 (2023-24). Key challenge: India lags on SDG 2 (hunger — Global Hunger Index), SDG 5 (gender equality — female LFPR, sex ratio), and SDG 14/15 (biodiversity). The Voluntary National Review (VNR) is India's self-reported progress to the UN High-Level Political Forum.
Paris Agreement & India's NDC
The Paris Agreement (2015) is a legally binding international treaty on climate change. Key features: (1) Temperature goal — limit warming to well below 2°C, pursue efforts for 1.5°C. (2) Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) — each country sets its own targets, updated every 5 years with "ratchet mechanism" (each successive NDC must be more ambitious). (3) Global Stocktake — first conducted at COP28 (2023) to assess collective progress. (4) Finance — developed countries to provide $100 billion/year (unmet until 2022). India's Updated NDC (August 2022): (a) 50% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030 (earlier target was 40%). (b) 45% reduction in emissions intensity of GDP by 2030 from 2005 levels (earlier was 33-35%). (c) India has NOT set an absolute emissions reduction target — consistent with CBDR. PM Modi's Panchamrit Pledges at COP26 Glasgow: (1) 500 GW non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030, (2) 50% energy from renewables by 2030, (3) 1 billion tonnes CO2 reduction by 2030, (4) Carbon intensity reduction of 45%, (5) Net-zero by 2070.
UNFCCC COP Conferences — Key Outcomes
COP (Conference of Parties) is the annual meeting under UNFCCC. Key milestones: COP3 (1997, Kyoto) — Kyoto Protocol adopted, binding targets for Annex I (developed) countries; Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allowed developing countries to sell emission reduction credits. COP15 (2009, Copenhagen) — failed to produce binding agreement; Copenhagen Accord (non-binding). COP21 (2015, Paris) — Paris Agreement adopted; universal participation (unlike Kyoto which excluded US and developing countries). COP26 (2021, Glasgow) — Glasgow Climate Pact; phase-down of coal (India and China negotiated "phase-down" instead of "phase-out"); India announced net-zero by 2070. COP27 (2022, Sharm el-Sheikh) — Loss and Damage Fund established for vulnerable nations — a key demand of developing countries and Small Island Developing States (SIDS). COP28 (2023, Dubai) — First Global Stocktake; agreement to "transition away from fossil fuels" (compromise language); UAE Consensus. COP29 (2024, Baku) — NCQG of $300 billion/year by 2035 (developing countries had demanded $1.3 trillion); Article 6 carbon market rules finalised.
Kyoto Protocol vs Paris Agreement
Kyoto Protocol (1997): Top-down approach — binding emission reduction targets only for Annex I (developed) countries. Developing countries (including India, China, Brazil) had no binding targets. Three flexible mechanisms: (1) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) — developed countries invest in emission reduction projects in developing countries and earn Certified Emission Reductions (CERs). India was the second-largest host of CDM projects (after China). (2) Joint Implementation (JI) — between Annex I countries. (3) Emissions Trading — trading of assigned amount units between Annex I countries. US never ratified Kyoto; Canada withdrew in 2012. Second commitment period (Doha Amendment, 2012-2020) had limited participation. Paris Agreement (2015): Bottom-up approach — all countries set their own NDCs voluntarily. No legally binding emission targets; legally binding reporting and review. Universal participation (196 parties). No distinction between developed and developing countries in terms of setting targets (though finance provisions differentiate). The shift from top-down (Kyoto) to bottom-up (Paris) was necessary because the US and China (world's two largest emitters) were not bound by Kyoto.
Carbon Markets & Pricing
Carbon Pricing: Putting a price on carbon emissions to incentivise reduction. Two approaches: (1) Carbon Tax: Direct tax on fossil fuel emissions. India had a Coal Cess (Rs 400/tonne, introduced 2010) — now subsumed into GST Compensation Cess. Sweden has the world's highest carbon tax (~$130/tonne). (2) Emissions Trading System (ETS) / Cap-and-Trade: Set a cap on total emissions, allocate permits, allow trading. EU ETS is the world's largest (since 2005). India's Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS, 2023): Under Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act 2022. Designated consumers must achieve emission reduction targets or buy carbon credits. Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under Ministry of Power administers the scheme. PAT (Perform, Achieve and Trade): For energy-intensive industries — set sector-specific energy consumption targets, trade Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts). Currently covers 13 sectors (thermal power, cement, steel, aluminium, fertiliser, etc.). Article 6 of Paris Agreement: Framework for international carbon markets — Article 6.2 (cooperative approaches between countries) and Article 6.4 (new centralised market mechanism replacing CDM). India has significant potential as a carbon credit supplier due to its renewable energy expansion.
Climate Finance
Developed countries pledged $100 billion/year by 2020 for developing countries — target was unmet until 2022. COP29 (Baku, 2024): New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) of $300 billion/year by 2035 — developing countries demanded $1.3 trillion. Green Climate Fund (GCF): Largest dedicated climate fund, established in 2010, HQ in Songdo, South Korea. India is both a contributor ($0.5 million) and a recipient. Adaptation Fund: Under Kyoto Protocol, funded by 2% levy on CDM transactions. National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC): Rs 350 crore for state-level adaptation projects in India. Green Bonds: Bonds where proceeds are used exclusively for climate/environmental projects. India issued its first Sovereign Green Bond in January 2023 (Rs 16,000 crore in two tranches). Used for solar/wind projects, metro rail, afforestation. India's green bond market reached $25+ billion. ESG (Environmental, Social, Governance): Framework for sustainable investing. SEBI mandated Business Responsibility and Sustainability Reporting (BRSR) for top 1,000 listed companies from FY23. BRSR Core with reasonable assurance from FY24 for top 150 companies. Climate risk disclosure is becoming mandatory for banks and financial institutions (RBI guidelines).
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
NAPCC was launched in 2008 with 8 National Missions: (1) National Solar Mission (Jawaharlal Nehru NSM): Target of 100 GW solar by 2022 (partially achieved — ~73 GW by March 2024). Now targeting 500 GW total renewable energy by 2030. (2) National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE): PAT scheme, ESCO model, super-efficient equipment programme. (3) National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: Promote energy efficiency in buildings (ECBC — Energy Conservation Building Code), urban public transport, waste management. (4) National Water Mission: 20% improvement in water use efficiency. (5) National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem: Conservation of Himalayan glaciers, biodiversity, traditional knowledge. (6) National Mission for a Green India: Increase forest/tree cover on 5 million hectares, improve quality of existing forest on another 5 million hectares. (7) National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): Climate-resilient farming — drought-resistant varieties, micro-irrigation, organic farming. (8) National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change: Research, capacity building, international cooperation. State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCCs): All states have prepared SAPCCs aligned with NAPCC — translating national missions into state-specific action. Implementation challenge: Funding gaps, coordination between centre and states, and monitoring of outcomes remain weak.
Net-Zero & Energy Transition
Net-Zero means balancing greenhouse gas emissions with removals — achieving no net addition to the atmosphere. India's net-zero target: 2070 (announced by PM Modi at COP26 Glasgow, November 2021). Comparison: EU and US target 2050; China targets 2060. India's argument: Per capita emissions are low; India needs development space; 2070 is fair given CBDR and historical responsibility. Energy transition measures: (1) National Green Hydrogen Mission (2023): Target 5 MMT (million metric tonnes) green hydrogen production by 2030. Rs 19,744 crore allocation. Green hydrogen from water electrolysis using renewable electricity. Applications: steel, fertiliser, transport, energy storage. (2) Renewable energy capacity: India has 190+ GW installed RE capacity (March 2024) — 4th globally. Solar: ~73 GW, Wind: ~46 GW, Small Hydro + Biomass + others. Target: 500 GW non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030. (3) Electric Vehicles: FAME II scheme (Rs 10,000 crore) for EV adoption. PM E-DRIVE scheme from 2024. Battery manufacturing through PLI scheme. (4) Ethanol Blending: 20% ethanol in petrol by 2025-26 (E20 target). Already achieved ~12%. (5) PM KUSUM: Solar pumps for farmers — reduces diesel dependence and provides clean energy. (6) Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act 2022: Expanded scope — carbon credit trading, large residential buildings under energy standards, non-fossil fuel obligations on energy producers.
Circular Economy & Resource Efficiency
Circular Economy: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle — replace the linear "take-make-dispose" model. NITI Aayog published a Circular Economy Action Plan covering 11 focus areas: Municipal solid waste, e-waste, construction & demolition waste, agricultural waste, steel, aluminium, EV batteries, textiles, plastics, end-of-life vehicles, solar panels. EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility): Producers responsible for end-of-life management of their products. India has EPR frameworks for plastic packaging, e-waste, batteries, tyres, and used oil. Plastic Waste Management: Single-use plastic ban (75 identified items banned from July 1, 2022). SUP includes straws, plates, cups, cutlery, earbuds with plastic sticks, stirrers. Plastic packaging thickness minimum: 50 microns (raised to 75 microns from Dec 2022, 120 microns from Dec 2023 for carry bags). Swachh Bharat Mission: Solid waste management (segregation at source, waste-to-energy, composting). GOBARdhan: Converting biodegradable waste into biogas/CBG (Compressed Biogas). SATAT initiative: Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation — 5,000 CBG plants target.
India's Environmental Laws & Key Bodies
Key Laws: Environment Protection Act 1986 (umbrella legislation — "EPA"), Wildlife Protection Act 1972, Forest Conservation Act 1980 (amended 2023 — renamed Van Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan Adhiniyam), Biological Diversity Act 2002 (amended 2023), National Green Tribunal Act 2010. EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment): Mandatory for developmental projects above specified thresholds. EIA Notification 2006 (amended 2020 — criticised for diluting public hearing requirements and expanding exemption categories). Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification 2019: Regulates activities along the coastline. Key bodies: (1) MoEFCC — Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. (2) CPCB and SPCBs — Central/State Pollution Control Boards under Water Act 1974 and Air Act 1981. (3) NGT — National Green Tribunal (established 2010) for environmental disputes; appellate tribunal for pollution and forest cases. (4) Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun. (5) Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE). (6) Forest Survey of India (FSI) — publishes biennial State of Forest Report (ISFR). India's forest cover: 21.76% of geographic area (ISFR 2023) — target is 33%.
India-Led International Initiatives
International Solar Alliance (ISA): India-France initiative launched at COP21 (Paris, 2015). HQ in Gurugram. 120+ member countries. Promotes solar energy deployment in tropical and sunshine countries. One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG) initiative — global interconnected solar energy grid. Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI): India-led initiative launched at UN Climate Action Summit 2019, HQ Delhi. Promotes disaster-resilient infrastructure globally. 40+ countries as members. LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment): PM Modi's initiative announced at COP26 — individual-level behavioural change for sustainability. Endorsed by G20. Mission LiFE promotes mindful utilisation vs mindless consumption. Global Biofuels Alliance: Launched during India's G20 Presidency (2023). Members include India, US, Brazil. Aims to scale up sustainable biofuels. LeadIT (Leadership Group for Industry Transition): Co-led by India and Sweden for decarbonising hard-to-abate industrial sectors.
Biodiversity & Conservation Economics
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Adopted at Rio 1992. Three objectives: Conservation, Sustainable use, Fair benefit-sharing. Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF, 2022): Successor to Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Key targets: protect 30% of land and 30% of oceans by 2030 ("30x30" target), restore 30% of degraded ecosystems, halve food waste, phase out harmful subsidies worth $500 billion. Nagoya Protocol (2010): Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) — communities holding traditional knowledge of genetic resources must receive fair benefits. India's Biological Diversity (Amendment) Act 2023 revised the 2002 Act — decriminalised certain offences, facilitated access for Indian traditional medicine practitioners. CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species): Regulates trade in wildlife. Ramsar Convention: Protection of wetlands of international importance. India has 80+ Ramsar sites (highest in South Asia). The concept of "ecosystem services" — forests, wetlands, and biodiversity provide services like water purification, carbon sequestration, pollination, and flood control worth trillions of dollars. Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) is emerging as a conservation financing mechanism.
Loss and Damage & Climate Adaptation
Adaptation vs Mitigation: Mitigation reduces greenhouse gas emissions (renewable energy, afforestation). Adaptation adjusts to the effects of climate change (flood defences, drought-resistant crops, early warning systems). Loss and Damage: Impacts of climate change that cannot be adapted to — irreversible harm (sea-level rise, extreme weather events, loss of biodiversity). Developing countries and SIDS (Small Island Developing States) demanded a separate funding mechanism. COP27 (2022): Agreed to establish a Loss and Damage Fund — landmark decision. COP28 (2023): Fund operationalised with initial pledges of ~$700 million (far short of estimated $400 billion needed annually). The fund is hosted by the World Bank (interim). India's vulnerability: India is the 7th most climate-vulnerable country (Global Climate Risk Index). Risks include: monsoon variability, glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) in Himalayas, sea-level rise threatening coastal cities (Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata), heat waves, cyclone intensity increase. National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC): Rs 350 crore for state-level adaptation projects. India's adaptation spending is 5-6 times its mitigation spending.
Green GDP, Natural Capital & Environmental Accounting
Green GDP adjusts conventional GDP by deducting environmental degradation and resource depletion costs. Provides a truer picture of economic progress. India has not officially adopted Green GDP but NITI Aayog has advocated for it. System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA): UN statistical framework for integrating environmental data with economic accounts. Natural Capital Accounting: Assigns economic values to natural resources (forests, water, minerals, biodiversity). India piloted natural capital accounting in select states under the WAVES (Wealth Accounting and Valuation of Ecosystem Services) partnership with the World Bank. Polluter Pays Principle: Those who cause pollution should bear the costs of managing it. Precautionary Principle: Where there is a threat of serious environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures. Both principles have been upheld by the Supreme Court (Vellore Citizens' Welfare Forum vs Union of India, 1996) and are foundational to Indian environmental jurisprudence.
Air & Water Pollution — Policy Framework
Air pollution is India's leading environmental health risk — 1.67 million deaths annually attributed to air pollution (Lancet 2019). National Clean Air Programme (NCAP, 2019): Target 40% reduction in PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations by 2025-26 (from 2017 baseline) in 131 non-attainment cities. Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) in NCR and Adjoining Areas: Statutory body (established 2021) replacing EPCA. Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) for Delhi: Stage I-IV emergency measures triggered by AQI thresholds. Crop residue burning in Punjab and Haryana contributes 25-40% of Delhi's winter pollution. National Green Tribunal (NGT) has issued multiple orders on air quality. Water pollution: India has 302 polluted river stretches (CPCB). Namami Gange programme: Rs 30,000+ crore for cleaning the Ganga. 183 STPs (Sewage Treatment Plants) completed. Fecal coliform levels have reduced but Ganga remains significantly polluted in UP and Bihar stretches. Industrial effluent: Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) mandated for 17 categories of highly polluting industries. Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs) for industrial clusters. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 and Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981 are the foundational statutes — CPCB and SPCBs derive enforcement powers from these Acts.
Renewable Energy — Solar, Wind & Beyond
India has the world's 4th largest renewable energy capacity: 190+ GW installed (March 2024). Solar: ~73 GW (from near zero in 2010). Achieved through: National Solar Mission (target 100 GW by 2022), solar parks (46 parks, 39 GW target), rooftop solar (PM Surya Ghar: 1 crore homes, Rs 75,000 subsidy), International Solar Alliance. Solar tariffs fell from Rs 17/unit (2010) to Rs 1.99/unit (lowest bid, 2024) — competitive with coal. Wind: ~46 GW. Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Rajasthan are top states. Offshore wind: 30 GW target by 2030, India's first 1 GW offshore wind project off Gujarat coast. Large Hydro (>25 MW): ~47 GW. Now classified as renewable (from 2019). Pumped Storage: Critical for RE integration (storing excess solar/wind). 18.8 GW identified. Small Hydro (<25 MW): ~5 GW. Biomass/Waste-to-Energy: ~11 GW. Nuclear: 7.48 GW operational (23 reactors). Target: 22.48 GW by 2031. India has indigenous thorium-based 3-stage nuclear programme (BARC). Transmission challenge: RE generation sites (Rajasthan, Gujarat deserts for solar; Tamil Nadu, Karnataka for wind) are far from demand centres (Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore). Green Energy Corridor project: Rs 12,031 crore for dedicated RE evacuation lines. Interstate Transmission System (ISTS) charges waived for RE projects until 2025. RPO (Renewable Purchase Obligation): DISCOMs and large consumers must purchase a specified percentage of electricity from renewable sources.
Electric Vehicles & Transport Decarbonisation
Transport accounts for ~14% of India's CO2 emissions. EV policy: FAME II (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles, Phase II): Rs 10,000 crore subsidy for EVs (ended March 2024). Subsidised 2-wheelers (Rs 15,000/kWh), 3-wheelers, buses. PM E-DRIVE scheme (from October 2024): Rs 10,900 crore continuation. Focus on electric 2-wheelers, 3-wheelers, ambulances, trucks, and school buses. PLI for Advanced Chemistry Cells (ACC): Rs 18,100 crore for domestic battery manufacturing. 50 GWh capacity targeted. PLI for Auto and Auto Components: Rs 25,938 crore — incentivises EV manufacturing. EV market: India sold 1.5 million EVs in FY24 (10x growth from FY21). 2-wheelers dominate (Ola Electric, Ather, TVS). 4-wheelers growing (Tata Motors 70%+ market share in electric cars). BYD, MG, Hyundai also entering. Charging infrastructure: ~12,000 public charging stations (target 46,000 by 2030). Battery swapping policy for 2/3-wheelers. Ethanol blending (E20 by 2025-26): Reduces fossil fuel dependence. 12% achieved. Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles: Long-term potential for trucks and buses. Indian Oil, NTPC piloting hydrogen fuelling stations. Railways electrification: 45,000+ km electrified (85%+ of route km). Target: 100% by 2024-25. Rail is India's largest single electricity consumer. Metro systems: 900+ km operational across 20+ cities. Delhi Metro: 390 km, first metro to receive carbon credits (CDM). Inland Waterways: National Waterways Act 2016 — 111 waterways notified. Low-carbon freight option.
Climate-Resilient Agriculture
Agriculture is both a contributor (~14% of India's GHG emissions — primarily methane from paddy, livestock, and nitrous oxide from fertilisers) and a victim of climate change (erratic monsoons, droughts, floods, heat stress reduce yields). National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): Promotes climate-resilient farming practices. Key components: (1) Rainfed Area Development (RAD): 56% of cropped area is rain-fed. Watershed development, crop diversification, soil health improvement. (2) Soil Health Card scheme: Provides soil nutrient information to farmers. 23+ crore cards distributed. (3) Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): Promotes organic farming. Cluster-based approach, Rs 50,000/hectare over 3 years. (4) Micro-irrigation: PM Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) — "per drop, more crop." Subsidy for drip and sprinkler irrigation. 80 lakh hectares covered. (5) National Bamboo Mission: Bamboo as carbon-sink crop, livelihood generation. (6) Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF): Promoted by some states (Andhra Pradesh — largest programme globally for 6 lakh farmers). Based on traditional farming using indigenous cow-based inputs. (7) PM Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY): Crop insurance covering weather risks — essential for climate adaptation. 4+ crore farmer applications annually. Premium: 2% (kharif), 1.5% (rabi), 5% (commercial). Direct Seeding of Rice (DSR): Reduces methane emissions and water use compared to conventional paddy transplanting. ICAR promotes through Krishi Vigyan Kendras. System of Rice Intensification (SRI): Reduces water use by 30-50% with comparable or higher yields.
Waste Management & Pollution Control
India generates 62 million tonnes of solid waste annually (CPCB), of which only 43 million tonnes is collected and 12 million tonnes is treated/processed. Solid Waste Management Rules 2016: Segregation at source (wet, dry, hazardous), user fees for waste collection, mandates processing/treatment before landfilling. Swachh Bharat Mission: Open defecation free declared in 2019. Phase 2 (2020-25): Focus on solid and liquid waste management, ODF sustainability, grey water management. Rs 1.42 lakh crore allocation. E-waste: India generates 3.2 million tonnes/year (5th globally). 95% handled by informal sector (unsafe practices: acid baths, open burning). E-Waste Management Rules 2022: EPR framework, PRO (Producer Responsibility Organisation) registration, recycler certification. Hazardous waste: Hazardous and Other Wastes Management Rules 2016. 46,000+ hazardous waste generating units. Common Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facilities (TSDFs) in 22 states. Biomedical waste: Biomedical Waste Management Rules 2016. COVID-19 increased biomedical waste by 40%. Construction & Demolition (C&D) waste: 150 million tonnes/year. Only 1% recycled. C&D Waste Management Rules 2016 mandate utilisation. Plastic waste: 3.4 million tonnes/year. EPR for plastic packaging from 2022. Single-use plastic ban (July 2022). India pledged at UNEA to end plastic pollution — negotiations for Global Plastics Treaty ongoing.
Environmental Impact Assessment & Clearance
EIA is a systematic process to identify, predict, and evaluate environmental impacts of proposed projects. EIA Notification 2006 (under Environment Protection Act 1986): Projects classified as Category A (Central clearance by MoEFCC Expert Appraisal Committee) and Category B (State clearance by SEIAA). Category B further split into B1 (EIA required) and B2 (EIA not required — only Environmental Management Plan). Four stages: Screening (is EIA required?), Scoping (TOR determination), Public Hearing (mandatory for most Category A and B1 projects), Appraisal (expert committee review). Environmental clearance valid for 10 years (mining: 50 years for >100 hectare). 2020 Draft EIA Notification (controversial): (1) Post-facto clearance for violations (pay penalty, get clearance retrospectively) — critics called this "legalising illegality." (2) Reduced public hearing notice period (20 days from 30). (3) Expanded B2 category (more projects exempt from full EIA). (4) Strategic projects (defence, security) exempt from public disclosure. (5) Compliance reporting frequency reduced (annual instead of biannual). NGT and environmental groups challenged several provisions. The amendment process remained contentious. Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification 2019: Replaced 2011 notification. CRZ-I (ecologically sensitive — mangroves, coral reefs): no construction. CRZ-II (developed urban): existing development line. CRZ-III (rural areas): 200m no-development zone (relaxed from 500m for densely populated rural areas). CRZ-IV (water area — islands). The 2019 notification was criticised for relaxing protections in CRZ-III, potentially increasing coastal vulnerability.
Green Finance & Sustainable Investment
Green finance channels capital toward environmentally sustainable activities. India needs $2.5 trillion in climate finance by 2030 (Council on Energy, Environment and Water estimate). Key instruments: (1) Green Bonds: India's green bond market reached $25+ billion. First sovereign green bond (January 2023): Rs 16,000 crore. SBI, PFC, REC, IREDA are major green bond issuers. CBI (Climate Bonds Initiative) certifies eligible bonds. (2) Social bonds: Fund social projects (affordable housing, healthcare). (3) Sustainability-linked loans: Interest rates tied to ESG performance. (4) Green deposits: RBI framework (2023) for banks to accept green deposits and use proceeds for sustainable activities. (5) Taxonomy: India developing a sustainable finance taxonomy to define what qualifies as "green." Aligning with EU Taxonomy principles but adapted for India's development context. Regulatory framework: SEBI: BRSR mandatory for top 1,000 listed companies. Green bond listing norms. ESG rating providers regulated from 2024. RBI: Climate risk assessment for banks (discussion paper 2022). Expects Pillar 3 climate disclosures. Insurance regulator (IRDAI): Climate risk guidelines for insurance companies. IFSCA (GIFT City): Launched sustainable finance framework for international financial services. Carbon market financing: CCTS-linked instruments expected. Net-zero transition finance is a key area — companies need "transition bonds" to finance shift from fossil fuels to clean energy without immediate revenue disruption.
Environmental Justice & Vulnerable Communities
Climate change and environmental degradation disproportionately affect marginalised communities. Key concerns in India: (1) Tribal displacement: 6-7 crore people displaced since independence by large projects (dams, mines, highways). Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA): Led by Medha Patkar against Sardar Sarovar Dam. SC (2000) allowed construction with rehabilitation conditions. (2) Mining-affected communities: Coal mining in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha displaces tribal populations. Open-cast mining destroys topsoil, water sources, and forests. Vedanta's Niyamgiri case (SC 2013): Gram Sabhas of Dongria Kondh tribe rejected bauxite mining — a landmark environmental justice ruling. (3) Industrial pollution: Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984) remains the world's worst industrial disaster — 3,500+ killed immediately, 15,000-20,000+ total deaths. Union Carbide never fully compensated victims. Highlights need for strict industrial liability. (4) Coastal communities: Sea-level rise threatens 170+ million people in India's coastal areas. Sundarbans (West Bengal) losing land to rising sea. Climate refugees are an emerging concern. (5) Urban poor: Delhi's air pollution affects the poor disproportionately (outdoor occupations, inability to buy air purifiers). Principles: Environmental justice demands that no community bears a disproportionate share of environmental harm. Intergenerational equity (central to sustainable development) requires that current generations preserve environmental quality for future generations. SC in MC Mehta vs Union of India (multiple cases) and Subhash Kumar vs State of Bihar (1991) established that the right to a clean environment is part of the right to life under Article 21.
Relevant Exams
Sustainable development is a major UPSC topic — questions on Paris Agreement, carbon markets, SDGs, NAPCC missions, and India's climate commitments appear regularly in both Prelims and Mains. COP outcomes and India's NDC are frequently tested in current affairs. SSC exams test Green Bonds, ISA, and plastic bans. Banking exams ask about ESG and green finance. SDG numbering, net-zero targets, and Kyoto vs Paris are perennial exam favourites.