Regional Trade & FTAs
Regional Trade Agreements
India maintains 13 operational trade agreements and negotiates 7+ more. Exams test RCEP withdrawal rationale, India-UAE CEPA features, SAFTA provisions, IPEF pillar structure, FTA utilisation gaps, and Rules of Origin disputes. Master the PTA-FTA-CEPA hierarchy, AITIGA review demands, and India's bilateral trade deficit patterns with FTA partners.
Key Dates
Bangkok Agreement (now APTA — Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement) signed — India's oldest PTA, includes China, South Korea, Bangladesh, Laos, Sri Lanka
India-Sri Lanka FTA came into effect — India's first bilateral FTA covering goods
SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area) signed — implemented from 2006; preferential tariffs among SAARC members
India-Singapore Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) signed — India's first comprehensive bilateral trade agreement covering goods, services, and investment
India-ASEAN FTA (goods) came into effect — tariff elimination on 75% of tariff lines with phase-down schedule
India-Japan CEPA came into effect — India's most comprehensive agreement at the time covering goods, services, investment, IPR
India-Korea CEPA operational — reduced tariffs on 85% of Korean goods and 75% of Indian goods over 10 years
India-ASEAN Trade in Services Agreement signed — covers Modes 1-3; Mode 4 remains restricted
India withdrew from RCEP negotiations at Bangkok summit — cited concerns about Chinese imports flooding domestic market
India-UAE CEPA signed (February) — India's first comprehensive FTA in over a decade; effective May 2022
India-Australia ECTA signed (April) — interim deal; came into effect December 29, 2022
India joined Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF) launched by US — but opted out of trade pillar
India initiated review of AITIGA (India-ASEAN FTA) — seeking to address Rules of Origin concerns and trade deficit
India-EFTA TEPA signed (March) — EFTA committed $100 billion investment over 15 years in exchange for market access
India-UK FTA negotiations entered 15th round — key sticking points: whisky tariff, dairy, Mode 4 visas
Types of Trade Agreements — Hierarchy
Trade agreements form a hierarchy by depth and scope. (1) A PTA (Preferential Trade Agreement) exchanges lower tariff rates on selected products. It offers the narrowest scope. India holds PTAs with MERCOSUR (signed 2004, operational 2009), Chile (2007), and Afghanistan (2003). APTA (formerly the Bangkok Agreement, 1975) is India's oldest PTA; members include China, South Korea, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Laos, and Mongolia. (2) An FTA eliminates tariffs and quotas on substantially all trade, typically covering 85-90% of tariff lines. Each member keeps its own external tariff against non-members, distinguishing it from a Customs Union. India operates FTAs with Sri Lanka (2000), ASEAN (2010), and Thailand (Early Harvest Scheme, 2004). (3) A CEPA adds investment, services, IPR, competition policy, government procurement, labour, and environment provisions on top of an FTA. India signed CEPAs with Japan (2011) and Korea (2010). (4) A CECA mirrors a CEPA. India signed CECAs with Singapore (2005) and Malaysia (2011). The CEPA/CECA labelling is India-specific; internationally these are comprehensive FTA variants. (5) A TEPA (Economic and Technology Cooperation Agreement) adds technology transfer and investment commitments. India-EFTA TEPA (2024) stands out for its legally binding $100 billion investment commitment. (6) A Customs Union combines an FTA with a common external tariff. The EU is one; India belongs to none. (7) A Common Market adds free factor movement. (8) An Economic Union harmonises monetary and fiscal policies on top. India now emphasises bilateral CEPAs with key partners over large plurilateral deals, a strategic pivot after the RCEP experience. India operates 13 trade agreements with 7+ under negotiation.
India-ASEAN FTA — Trade & Review
AITIGA (India-ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement) took effect on January 1, 2010 after negotiations that began in 2003. All 10 ASEAN members participate: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. The agreement eliminates tariffs on approximately 75% of tariff lines through phased schedules. Normal Track products reached zero duty by 2013 for ASEAN-6 and by 2018 for CLMV countries. Sensitive Track products saw limited reduction to 5%. India excluded dairy, agriculture, automobiles, and petrochemicals under the Highly Sensitive List. The India-ASEAN Trade in Services Agreement (2014) covers Modes 1-3; Mode 4 remains restrictive. Bilateral trade reached $131 billion in FY24, making ASEAN India's 4th largest partner after the US, China, and UAE. India's trade deficit with ASEAN stands at approximately $25 billion (FY24) and continues growing. Palm oil surged from Indonesia and Malaysia, electronics from Vietnam and Thailand, along with rubber, plastics, and auto components. Indian exports that gained include petroleum products, gems and jewellery, pharmaceuticals, marine products, and rice. India initiated a comprehensive AITIGA review in 2023 with four objectives. First, India demands stricter Rules of Origin because Indian industry alleges Chinese goods transit through ASEAN (particularly Vietnam) to exploit FTA rates. Second, India seeks auto-trigger safeguard mechanisms for import surges in sensitive sectors. Third, the review targets new provisions for digital trade, sustainability, and supply chains. Fourth, India pushes to rebalance tariff concessions it considers disproportionately favourable to ASEAN exporters. Under Act East Policy, India became ASEAN's Comprehensive Strategic Partner in 2022. Cooperation spans trade, connectivity (India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway, Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project), defence, and culture.
RCEP — India's Withdrawal & Strategic Implications
RCEP is the world's largest FTA by GDP and population — 15 Asia-Pacific countries (10 ASEAN + China, Japan, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand). Signed November 2020, effective January 1, 2022. It covers approximately 30% of world GDP, 30% of world population, and 28% of global trade. India participated in negotiations for 7 years (2012-2019) but withdrew at the Bangkok summit in November 2019. PM Modi stated the agreement did not reflect its original intent or India's core interests. India's five key concerns: (1) China trade deficit ($85 billion in FY24, India's largest bilateral deficit) — RCEP would have required further tariff cuts on Chinese goods, devastating domestic manufacturing in toys (China's share: 85% of India's imports), electronics (65%), chemicals, steel, and textiles. (2) Dairy and agriculture — India is the world's largest milk producer (231 million tonnes, 2023-24) with 80 million dairy farmers, mostly smallholders. RCEP would have exposed them to cheap imports from New Zealand and Australia. Plantation crops (tea, rubber, spices) also faced competition. (3) Rules of Origin — weak RoO provisions could have allowed Chinese products to enter India via RCEP partners at preferential rates. (4) Services inadequacy — Mode 4 (movement of professionals), India's strongest export mode, saw no meaningful liberalisation. (5) Auto-trigger safeguards — India demanded automatic safeguard mechanisms for import surges; other members rejected this. Post-withdrawal strategy: India pivoted to bilateral FTAs — UAE CEPA (2022), Australia ECTA (2022), EFTA TEPA (2024), ongoing UK and EU negotiations. The "China+1" strategy by global firms benefits India despite RCEP absence — PLI schemes target this opportunity. India retains an open-door clause to join RCEP later.
India-UAE CEPA — Landmark Agreement
India-UAE CEPA was signed February 18, 2022 and took effect May 1, 2022 — India's first major FTA in over a decade (after India-Japan/Korea CEPAs in 2010-11), negotiated in a record 88 days. Coverage: 97% of tariff lines (99% by value for UAE, 90% for India). Key provisions — Goods: India gained zero duty on gems and jewellery exports ($8+ billion, India's largest export category to UAE), textiles, leather, footwear, sports goods, engineering goods, pharmaceuticals, and agricultural products. UAE gained zero or reduced duty on petroleum products, gold, chemicals, minerals, plastics, and base metals. Services: Mutual recognition of qualifications in select professions (architecture, nursing, chartered accountancy). Digital trade provisions — India's first FTA with a dedicated digital trade chapter. Government procurement commitments open UAE contracts to Indian companies. Investment: UAE is a major investor with $18+ billion cumulative FDI. CEPA includes investment protection and facilitation; ADIA is among the world's largest sovereign wealth funds. Trade impact: Bilateral trade reached $84.5 billion (FY24) — UAE is India's 3rd largest partner. India's exports to UAE grew 12%+ in the first post-CEPA year. FTA utilisation rate stands at 35-40% — significantly higher than India-ASEAN (25%). India-UAE relations: 3.5+ million Indian diaspora (largest expatriate community), $14+ billion annual remittances. CEPA forms part of a broader strategic partnership spanning defence, space, climate, digital, and energy cooperation.
India-Australia ECTA & India-EFTA TEPA
India-Australia ECTA was signed April 2, 2022 and took effect December 29, 2022. This interim agreement precedes a comprehensive CECA under negotiation. India offers tariff concessions on 70% of tariff lines (rising to 96% eventually). Australia offers immediate zero duty on 100% of Indian goods (average applied MFN tariff already 2.5%). India's key gains: zero duty on textiles (potential $2 billion export gain), gems, leather, footwear, furniture, and food products. Services: post-study work visas for Indian students (up to 4 years), STEM visa provisions, and IT market access commitments. Australia gains: tariff reductions on wine (from 150% to 50% over 10 years), almonds, lentils, sheep meat, wool, coal, LNG, aluminium, and copper. India excluded dairy, wheat, rice, sugar, sunflower oil, gold, and other sensitive items. Bilateral trade: approximately $27 billion (FY24). India-EFTA TEPA was signed March 10, 2024 between India and EFTA (Switzerland, Norway, Iceland, Liechtenstein). Its most innovative feature: EFTA committed to facilitating $100 billion in investment over 15 years — the first FTA with a legally binding investment commitment. A "snap-back" provision lets India suspend tariff concessions if EFTA fails to meet the target. India's concessions include reduced tariffs on Swiss watches (from 20-25%), Norwegian seafood, gold, processed food, machinery, and precision instruments. India excluded dairy, soy, palm oil, and agricultural products. India gains market access for pharmaceutical generics (Switzerland hosts Novartis, Roche), IT services, and textiles. EFTA companies (ABB, Nestlé, Roche, Equinor, Zurich Insurance) are expected to expand manufacturing in India. Strategic significance: diversifies India's FTA portfolio beyond Asia. Switzerland ranks 2nd on the GII 2023.
SAFTA & South Asian Trade Integration
SAFTA was signed January 2004 at the 12th SAARC Summit in Islamabad and became operational July 2006. Members: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives, Afghanistan (8 SAARC members). SAFTA aims to cut tariffs to 0-5% on substantially all regional products. Non-LDC members (India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) completed tariff reduction by 2012; LDC members by 2016. Large Sensitive Lists severely limit actual liberalisation — India's list has 480+ items for LDC members and 868 for non-LDC members. Pakistan suspended trade with India in August 2019 after Article 370 revocation, withdrawing MFN status. Bilateral trade dropped to near-zero from $2.5 billion (FY19). Intra-SAARC trade is approximately 5% of total trade (vs 25% in ASEAN, 60%+ in EU, 40%+ in USMCA). Structural causes: India-Pakistan tensions, similar export baskets limiting complementarity, poor cross-border infrastructure, high non-tariff barriers, and informal trade estimated at 2-3x formal volumes. India's bilateral South Asian agreements: India-Sri Lanka FTA (2000, India's first bilateral FTA, 4,000+ product lines at zero duty), India-Nepal trade treaty (duty-free access for Nepalese goods with 30%+ domestic value addition), India-Bhutan (virtually free trade), India-Bangladesh (trade through SAFTA + bilateral MoUs, $16+ billion FY24, India grants duty-free access under SAFTA LDC provisions). BBIN Motor Vehicles Agreement (2015) aims to improve road connectivity but implementation has been slow (Bhutan withdrew 2017; India-Bangladesh bilateral MVA operational). India's DFTP (Duty-Free Tariff Preference) scheme extends to all LDCs globally covering 98.6% of tariff lines at zero duty — benefits Bangladesh, Cambodia, Myanmar, Nepal, Ethiopia, and Tanzania.
India-Japan CEPA & India-Korea CEPA
India-Japan CEPA was signed February 16, 2011 and took effect August 1, 2011 — India's most comprehensive agreement at the time. Coverage: 94% of Japan's tariff lines and 90% of India's reach zero or reduced tariffs over 15 years. India gained market access for shrimp, tuna, mango, spices, pharmaceuticals, textiles, chemicals, and iron ore. Services: recognition of Indian IT qualifications, Mode 4 provisions for business persons. Japan gained reduced tariffs on automobiles (from 100%+ to 60-70% over 10 years), auto parts, electronics, steel, machinery, and chemicals. Japan-India Special Strategic and Global Partnership: bilateral trade $22 billion (FY24). Japan is the 5th largest FDI source ($38 billion cumulative). Japanese companies in India: Suzuki (Maruti), Toyota, Honda, Sony, Panasonic, Mitsubishi. JICA is the largest bilateral development finance provider — funding Delhi Metro, Mumbai Trans-Harbour Link, DFC, and Chennai Metro. India-Korea CEPA was signed August 7, 2009 and took effect January 1, 2010. Korea eliminated tariffs on 85% of lines; India on 75% over 10 years. Bilateral trade: $25 billion (FY24). India's deficit with Korea: approximately $10 billion. Korean FDI in India: $8 billion cumulative. Major Korean companies: Samsung (largest Korean FDI), Hyundai, LG, Kia, POSCO. India has initiated a CEPA review to address the deficit by expanding agricultural, textile, and IT services exports. Both CEPAs illustrate a pattern: India's trade deficit with FTA partners has generally widened post-agreement because partners' manufactured goods are more competitive. This pattern drove India's caution about new FTAs and underpinned RCEP withdrawal.
Indo-Pacific Economic Framework & New Trade Architecture
The global trade architecture is shifting from WTO-centric multilateralism to plurilateral and regional frameworks. Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF): Launched by the US in May 2022 in Tokyo. 14 members: US, India, Japan, Australia, South Korea, New Zealand, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, Fiji. Four pillars: (I) Trade — fair trade, labour standards, environmental provisions, digital trade rules, agriculture, regulatory transparency. India opted OUT citing labour/environmental standards as potential non-tariff barriers, digital trade rules that could restrict data localisation, and agricultural provisions constraining MSP/procurement. (II) Supply Chains — diversification, early warning, critical minerals mapping, crisis response. India actively participates. The Supply Chain Resilience Agreement (2023) established a Crisis Response Network and Supply Chain Council. (III) Clean Economy — clean energy transition, decarbonisation, climate-smart agriculture. India participates, aligned with its climate commitments and green hydrogen ambitions. (IV) Fair Economy — anti-corruption, tax transparency, capacity building, AML. India participates. IPEF is NOT an FTA — it includes no tariff reduction or market access commitments. IMEC (India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor): Announced at the G20 New Delhi Summit (September 2023). Two corridors: Eastern (India → UAE → Saudi Arabia) and Northern (Saudi Arabia → Jordan → Israel → Europe). Rail, shipping, electricity cable, hydrogen pipeline, and data cable connectivity — an alternative to China's BRI. Still in planning stage with geopolitical challenges. I2U2 (India-Israel-UAE-US): Minilateral for food security, clean energy, and health/space technology. BRICS expanded in 2024 to include UAE, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran. NDB (HQ Shanghai) provides infrastructure financing — India's contribution $10 billion, cumulative lending $33+ billion. SCO: India joined in 2017 for trade facilitation and connectivity cooperation.
India-UK & India-EU FTA Negotiations
India-UK FTA: Negotiations launched January 13, 2022 — India's first major FTA negotiation with a G7 country. 14+ rounds completed by 2024 with significant progress but sticky issues remain. UK demands: whisky and spirits (India charges 150% duty), luxury automobiles (60-100% duty), dairy access, insurance and financial services (higher FDI limits), and UK law firms practising in India. India demands: Mode 4 liberalisation (easier work visas for IT, healthcare, engineering professionals), social security portability for pensions, mutual recognition of Indian degrees, services market access for IT/BPO, and reduced SPS barriers on agricultural exports. Bilateral trade: $22 billion (FY24). UK ranks among the top 5 FDI sources. 1.6 million Indian-origin people live in the UK. Expected completion by 2025 if political conditions hold. India-EU BTIA: Original negotiations launched 2007, suspended 2013 after 16 rounds due to tariff, data protection, and services disagreements. Restarted 2022 after a 9-year gap. The EU is India's 2nd largest trading partner ($120+ billion bilateral trade, FY24). EU demands: data adequacy recognition (GDPR compliance), government procurement access, GI recognition for European products, and IPR standards. India demands: Mode 1 and Mode 4 services liberalisation, removal of CBAM (carbon border tax that could cost Indian exporters $2+ billion annually — India has called it "discriminatory" at WTO), and reduced SPS barriers. India-GCC FTA: Under negotiation. GCC is India's largest regional trading partner ($188 billion bilateral trade, FY24). India imports approximately 40% of its crude oil from GCC countries.
FTA Utilisation, Trade Deficit & Policy Debates
A critical gap separates FTA theory from actual outcomes. FTA Utilisation Rate: The proportion of eligible trade using preferential FTA tariff rates averages 25-30% for India — significantly below the 70-80% utilisation by ASEAN countries, South Korea, and Japan. Reasons: complex Rules of Origin documentation deters small exporters, SMEs lack FTA awareness, compliance costs can exceed tariff savings for small shipments, and domestic value addition requirements challenge firms in global supply chains. The Government has launched FTA awareness campaigns and digital certificate of origin platforms. Trade Deficit Widening: India's deficit with most FTA partners has grown post-agreement. India-ASEAN deficit expanded from $7 billion (FY10) to $25 billion (FY24). India-Korea deficit: $10 billion (FY24). India-Japan trade remains relatively balanced. The core issue: partners' manufactured goods are more competitive, and tariff reduction enables increased imports while India's exports face non-tariff barriers even when tariffs drop. This experience drives India's caution about ambitious liberalisation in new FTAs. Rules of Origin (RoO) Concerns: RoO determine preferential tariff eligibility. Types: wholly obtained, change in tariff classification, and value addition (typically 35-40% minimum). India's concern: Chinese goods route through ASEAN partners (trans-shipment) with minimal value addition, entering India at FTA rates — alleged particularly for electronics, chemicals, and textiles via Vietnam, Thailand, and Malaysia. India has proposed stronger RoO verification in the AITIGA review. Comparative strategy: Vietnam has 16 FTAs, South Korea 22, Singapore 27, Chile 30+. These countries used FTAs to integrate into global supply chains. India's caution is partly justified but may limit participation in global value chains.
BIMSTEC & Sub-Regional Trade Cooperation
BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation) was established in 1997 with 7 members: India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan. It has gained importance as an alternative to SAARC, which remains paralysed by India-Pakistan tensions. India actively promotes BIMSTEC as its preferred South and Southeast Asian regional grouping. BIMSTEC FTA negotiations began in 2004 but progress has been slow — framework agreement signed but not operational. India offers zero-duty access to LDC members under its DFTP scheme. BIMSTEC's advantage over SAARC: excludes Pakistan, includes Thailand and Myanmar, and bridges South and Southeast Asia in alignment with Act East Policy. BIMSTEC covers 14 priority sectors including trade, technology transfer, energy, transport, agriculture, counter-terrorism, and climate change. Secretariat established in Dhaka (2014). India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway: 1,360 km connecting Moreh (Manipur) to Mae Sot (Thailand) via Myanmar. Sections in Myanmar are being upgraded to boost mainland Southeast Asian trade. Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project: Connects Kolkata port to Sittwe port (Myanmar) then via river/road to Mizoram, giving India's northeast an alternative sea access route. Phase 1 (waterway) is operational. These connectivity projects complement maritime trade and reduce Malacca Strait dependence.
Trade Remedies & Anti-Dumping Measures
Trade remedies protect domestic industries from unfair practices. India ranks among the most active global users. Anti-Dumping Duties (ADD): Imposed when a foreign producer sells goods in India below domestic market price or cost, causing material injury to Indian industry. India had 262 anti-dumping measures in force (2023) — 2nd globally after the USA. DGTR (Directorate General of Trade Remedies) under the Department of Commerce investigates dumping complaints. Major targets: China (50%+ of cases), EU, South Korea, Thailand, Malaysia. Frequently targeted products: chemicals, steel, textiles, ceramics, rubber, optical fibre, aluminium. Process: industry petition → DGTR investigation (12-18 months) → provisional duty → final determination → duty for 5 years (renewable). Countervailing Duties (CVD): Imposed when foreign governments subsidise exporters, causing injury — less frequently used than ADD. Safeguard Duties: Temporary measures against sudden import surges causing serious injury — applied to all sources (not country-specific). India imposed safeguard duty on solar cell imports (2018-2022) to protect domestic manufacturers. India's measures comply with WTO rules when proper investigation procedures are followed. Some partners have challenged India's ADD at WTO with mixed results. India has also faced ADD investigations abroad — the US and EU have imposed ADD on Indian steel, shrimp, pharmaceutical ingredients, and textiles. Quality Control Orders (QCOs): India mandates BIS certification for 600+ products. While technically for quality assurance, trading partners (China, EU) view some QCOs as non-tariff barriers. India argues they protect consumer safety.
Trade Agreements & Constitutional Framework
Constitutional and legal framework: Article 246 read with Entry 83 of Union List: customs duties including export duties are an exclusive Union subject. Entry 41 of Union List covers trade and commerce with foreign countries. Article 253: Parliament can legislate on international agreements — implementing trade treaties requires parliamentary legislation for domestic law changes. FTDR Act 1992: Principal legislation governing foreign trade. DGFT under the Department of Commerce administers it, issuing the Foreign Trade Policy every 5 years — current FTP 2023 is "dynamic and responsive" with indefinite duration. FTP provides export promotion schemes: Advance Authorisation, DFIA, EPCG, and RoDTEP (replaced MEIS and GST refund mechanisms). Customs Act 1962 governs customs duties, ADD, and safeguard duties. Customs Tariff Act 1975 specifies tariff rates aligned with HSN. The Tariff Commission (1997) advises on tariff policy. India's applied MFN tariff averages 18.1% (simple average, 2022) — among the highest for major economies (US: 3.4%, EU: 5.1%, China: 7.5%, Japan: 4.2%). This gives India significant policy space to offer FTA concessions while maintaining protection for sensitive sectors.
India's Export Strategy & Trade Infrastructure
India's export policy targets $2 trillion in goods and services exports by 2030. Current status: merchandise exports $437 billion (FY24), services exports $341 billion (FY24) — total $778 billion. Merchandise trade deficit: $240 billion. Key instruments: (1) RoDTEP: Reimburses embedded central, state, and local duties not refunded through GST — replaced the WTO-incompatible MEIS. Implemented through digital scrip. (2) PLI schemes: Rs 1.97 lakh crore across 14 sectors. Mobile phone exports jumped from $3 billion (FY20) to $15.6 billion (FY24) — the most successful PLI sector. (3) Districts as Export Hubs (DEH): Identifies export potential products across 739 districts with district-level export action plans. (4) Trade infrastructure: Sagarmala (port modernisation), PM GatiShakti (multi-modal connectivity), DFCs, FTWZs, and ICDs. ODOP (One District One Product) integrates GI registration and quality improvement for district exports. Challenges: (a) Non-tariff barriers in destination markets (EU CBAM, US sanitary standards, Japan quality certifications). (b) Currency volatility — a strong rupee hurts export competitiveness. (c) High logistics costs (14-16% of GDP vs 8% in developed countries). (d) Limited GVC participation — India's share in GVC trade is about 15% (vs 35-40% for Vietnam and Thailand). (e) Over-dependence on petroleum exports ($90 billion, 20% of total) leaves India vulnerable to commodity price swings.
Relevant Exams
UPSC Prelims and Mains test RCEP withdrawal reasons, India-UAE CEPA features, SAFTA provisions, IPEF pillars, and BIMSTEC significance heavily. SSC CGL asks factual questions on ASEAN FTA, SAFTA members, and recent FTA signings. IBPS PO tests bilateral trade figures and FTA sectoral impacts. UPSC Mains GS Paper 2 (IR) and GS Paper 3 (Economy) both cover India's trade agreement strategy. Questions on IMEC, trade remedies, and FTA utilisation are increasingly common.