Biodiversity Conservation
Biodiversity Conservation
Biodiversity conservation involves protecting species, genetic diversity, and ecosystems through in-situ and ex-situ methods. India has a comprehensive framework including the Biological Diversity Act 2002, Wildlife Protection Act 1972, and international conventions like CBD and CITES.
Key Dates
Convention on Biological Diversity (1992, Rio) — conservation, sustainable use, benefit sharing
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (1975) — regulates wildlife trade
Convention on Migratory Species (Bonn Convention, 1979)
Categories: Extinct, Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Near Threatened, Least Concern
National Biodiversity Authority established under Biodiversity Act 2002; HQ Chennai
2010 — Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) of genetic resources
2022 — Global Biodiversity Framework; target to protect 30% land and ocean by 2030 ("30x30")
Wildlife Protection Act: six schedules; Schedule I = highest protection; provides for NPs and WSs
Forest Conservation Act: Central approval required for diversion of forest land for non-forest use
National Tiger Conservation Authority (2006) under WLPA Amendment; manages 53 tiger reserves
Launched 1973 at Jim Corbett NP; India has 53 tiger reserves and 3,167+ tigers (2022 census)
Launched 1992; 33 elephant reserves across 16 states; protects corridors
1971 — wetland conservation; India has 80+ Ramsar sites (~1.3 million hectares)
Wildlife trade monitoring network (joint WWF-IUCN programme); TRAFFIC India monitors illegal wildlife trade
Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (est. 2007) under MoEFCC; combats wildlife crime in India
In-Situ Conservation
In-situ conservation means protecting species in their natural habitats. It is the most effective and preferred method. Key approaches: (1) Protected Areas — National Parks (106), Wildlife Sanctuaries (567), Conservation Reserves (105), Community Reserves (220); provide legal protection to habitats; (2) Biosphere Reserves (18) — under UNESCO MAB; integrate conservation with sustainable development; three-zone model (core, buffer, transition); (3) Tiger Reserves (53) — Project Tiger; core and buffer zones; (4) Elephant Reserves (33) — protect elephant corridors; (5) Marine Protected Areas — Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kutch, Andaman reefs; (6) Ramsar Wetlands (80+) — wetlands of international importance; (7) Sacred Groves — traditional community-protected forest patches; Kerala kavus, Maharashtra devvan, Rajasthan orans, Jharkhand sarnas; (8) Community Conserved Areas — managed by indigenous communities; Biodiversity Heritage Sites under Biological Diversity Act. Challenges: human-wildlife conflict, poaching, habitat fragmentation, encroachment, invasive species, funding constraints.
Ex-Situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation means protecting species outside their natural habitats. Methods: (1) Zoological Parks/Zoos — Central Zoo Authority (CZA) regulates; about 150 zoos in India; captive breeding programmes for endangered species; Delhi Zoo, Mysuru Zoo, Nandankanan (Odisha — white tiger), Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoo (Darjeeling — snow leopard, red panda); (2) Botanical Gardens — Indian Botanical Garden (Howrah — oldest, has Great Banyan Tree), National Botanical Research Institute (Lucknow), Lalbagh (Bengaluru); preserve plant species; (3) Gene Banks — preserve genetic material (seeds, pollen, tissue cultures, DNA); National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR, New Delhi); National Gene Bank preserves over 4.4 lakh accessions; (4) Seed Banks — store seeds at low temperatures for long-term preservation; Svalbard Global Seed Vault (Norway) — "Doomsday vault" has India's seed samples; (5) Cryopreservation — storing cells/tissues at ultra-low temperatures (liquid nitrogen, -196 degrees C); used for animal gametes and embryos; (6) Captive Breeding & Reintroduction — successful examples: Barasingha at Kanha, tiger reintroduction at Sariska and Panna, vulture breeding programme at Pinjore (Haryana) and Bhopal.
International Conventions & Agreements
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992): Three objectives: (a) conservation of biological diversity, (b) sustainable use of its components, (c) fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources. 196 parties (USA has signed but not ratified). Nagoya Protocol (2010): Supplementary to CBD; establishes legally binding framework for Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) of genetic resources; prevents biopiracy. Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF, 2022): Successor to Aichi Targets; 23 targets including: protect 30% of land and sea by 2030 ("30x30"), restore 30% of degraded ecosystems, reduce biodiversity-harmful subsidies by $500 billion, mobilize $200 billion/year for biodiversity. CITES (1975): Regulates international trade in wild plants and animals through three Appendices: I (most endangered, trade banned), II (threatened, controlled trade), III (protected in at least one country). India is a party. CMS/Bonn Convention (1979): Protects migratory species; India has signed MOUs for dugongs, raptors, marine turtles; Appendix I (endangered migratory species), Appendix II (requiring cooperative agreements). Ramsar Convention (1971): Wetland conservation.
Indian Legal Framework for Conservation
Wildlife Protection Act 1972 (WLPA): Provides for establishment of protected areas and protection of wild animals/plants. Six Schedules: Schedule I (highest protection — tiger, lion, elephant, rhinoceros, snow leopard, Great Indian Bustard; hunting prohibited), Schedule II (high protection), Schedule III & IV (lesser protection but hunting prohibited), Schedule V (vermin — e.g., common crow, fruit bats; can be hunted), Schedule VI (regulated plants — cannot be cultivated/traded). WLPA Amendment 2022: Implemented CITES in India; established CITES Management Authority. Biological Diversity Act 2002: Establishes three-tier structure: National Biodiversity Authority (NBA, Chennai) — regulates access by foreigners/NRIs; State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) — regulate Indian entities; Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) at local body level — prepare People's Biodiversity Registers (PBRs). The Act also designates Biodiversity Heritage Sites. Forest Conservation Act 1980: Prior Central Government approval required for diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes. Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) ensures afforestation when forest land is diverted.
Threats to Biodiversity & Conservation Challenges
Major threats (mnemonic — HIPPO): (1) Habitat loss — deforestation, urbanization, agriculture expansion, mining, dam construction; India has lost significant forest cover to development; (2) Invasive Alien Species — Lantana camara (dominant weed in Indian forests), water hyacinth (chokes water bodies), Prosopis juliflora (Vilayati Babool), Parthenium (Congress grass), African catfish; displace native species; (3) Pollution — pesticides, industrial effluents, plastic; affects aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity; (4) Population growth — increased demand for resources, land, and food; (5) Over-exploitation — overfishing, overhunting, over-collection of forest produce; poaching for ivory, tiger parts, sandalwood. Additional threats: Climate change (habitat shifts, coral bleaching, phenological changes), human-wildlife conflict (increasing as habitats shrink — elephant-human conflict in Assam, Jharkhand; leopard-human conflict in Maharashtra, Uttarakhand), linear infrastructure (roads and railways fragmenting habitats), and wildlife crime (India is a source and transit country for illegal wildlife trade — TRAFFIC India monitors this).
Species-Specific Conservation Projects in India
India has launched numerous species-specific conservation projects: (1) Project Tiger (1973): India's most successful conservation initiative; launched at Jim Corbett NP; India has 53 tiger reserves covering ~75,000 sq km; tiger population grew from 1,411 (2006) to 3,167+ (2022); NTCA (National Tiger Conservation Authority, 2006) manages the project; funding through Project Tiger Central scheme + tiger census every 4 years using camera traps; challenges: habitat fragmentation, human-tiger conflict, poaching, and development pressure in buffer zones. (2) Project Elephant (1992): protects Asian elephant and its habitat; 33 elephant reserves across 16 states; India has about 29,964 elephants (2017 census); key challenges: elephant corridors blocked by development, human-elephant conflict (400+ human deaths/year), railway kills, habitat loss. (3) Project Snow Leopard (2009): protects snow leopard habitat in the trans-Himalayan region; covers Ladakh, HP, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh; estimated 718 snow leopards in India (2024 SPAI survey — first-ever). (4) Indian Rhino Vision 2020: aimed to increase rhino population and expand range in Assam; successful translocation of rhinos to Manas NP from Pobitora and Kaziranga; India has ~3,262 one-horned rhinos (mostly in Kaziranga). (5) Vulture Conservation Programme: India lost 99% of its vulture population (1990s-2000s) due to diclofenac poisoning (veterinary painkiller); diclofenac banned for veterinary use (2006); captive breeding at Pinjore (Haryana), Bhopal, Rani (Assam); release programme underway; Vulture Safe Zones established. (6) Sea Turtle Conservation: olive ridley mass nesting (arribada) at Gahirmatha Beach (Odisha) — world's largest; Operation Olivia by Indian Coast Guard protects nesting beaches; Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) mandatory in trawl nets. (7) Project Bustard: protects critically endangered Great Indian Bustard; breeding centres at Jaisalmer; power line undergrounding ordered by Supreme Court.
Protected Area Network of India
India's protected area network covers about 5.06% of total geographical area (as of 2023): 106 National Parks (40,500+ sq km), 567 Wildlife Sanctuaries (122,500+ sq km), 105 Conservation Reserves, and 220+ Community Reserves. Key National Parks: Jim Corbett (Uttarakhand) — India's first NP (1936); tiger, elephant; Kaziranga (Assam) — one-horned rhinoceros (2/3 of world population); UNESCO WHS; Sundarbans (West Bengal) — Royal Bengal Tiger, mangroves; UNESCO WHS; Ranthambore (Rajasthan) — tiger tourism; Gir (Gujarat) — only Asiatic Lion habitat; Kanha (MP) — barasingha (hard-ground swamp deer); inspired Kipling's Jungle Book; Hemis (Ladakh) — India's largest NP, snow leopard; Keibul Lamjao (Manipur) — world's only floating NP, Sangai deer; Silent Valley (Kerala) — lion-tailed macaque, tropical evergreen; Valley of Flowers (Uttarakhand) — UNESCO WHS, alpine flowers; Namdapha (Arunachal Pradesh) — only NP with all four big cats (tiger, leopard, clouded leopard, snow leopard). Difference between NP and WS: NPs have stricter restrictions (no grazing, no private land, boundaries changed only by state legislature); WSs allow limited human activities with permission. UNESCO World Heritage Sites (Natural/Mixed): Kaziranga, Manas, Keoladeo (Bharatpur), Sundarbans, Nanda Devi & Valley of Flowers, Western Ghats, Great Himalayan NP. UNESCO World Heritage Site nominations pending include several sites across various states.
Wetland Conservation and Ramsar Sites
Wetlands are transitional zones between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, providing critical ecosystem services: flood control, water purification, groundwater recharge, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity habitat. India has diverse wetland types: floodplain wetlands (Ganga, Brahmaputra), coastal wetlands (mangroves, lagoons), high-altitude wetlands (Pangong, Tso Moriri), and man-made wetlands (reservoirs, tanks). India has 80+ Ramsar Sites (wetlands of international importance) covering about 1.34 million hectares (as of 2024) — the most of any South Asian country. Significant Ramsar Sites: Chilika Lake (Odisha) — India's largest coastal lagoon; first Ramsar Site (1981); Irrawaddy dolphins, migratory birds; Keoladeo (Bharatpur, Rajasthan) — bird sanctuary, UNESCO WHS; Loktak Lake (Manipur) — largest freshwater lake in NE India; Keibul Lamjao floating NP; phumdis (floating vegetation mats); Wular Lake (J&K) — largest freshwater lake in India; Dal Lake (J&K) — iconic; Vembanad-Kol (Kerala) — largest Ramsar Site in India (1,512.5 sq km); backwaters ecosystem; East Kolkata Wetlands — sewage-fed fisheries, unique urban wetland; Deepor Beel (Assam) — near Guwahati, bird sanctuary. Tamil Nadu has the most Ramsar Sites among Indian states (16 as of 2024), followed by UP (10). Wetland threats: encroachment, pollution, siltation, weed infestation (water hyacinth), and drainage for agriculture/construction. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2017 regulate wetlands but have been criticized for lacking teeth. Many wetlands in India are degrading despite Ramsar designation.
Human-Wildlife Conflict
Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) occurs when the activities of wildlife cause damage to humans or their livelihoods, or when human activities threaten wildlife. India faces increasing HWC due to habitat fragmentation, expanding human settlements into wildlife areas, and growing wildlife populations (success of conservation). Key conflict types: (1) Elephant-Human Conflict: about 400-500 humans and 100+ elephants die annually; worst in West Bengal, Assam, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka; causes: fragmented corridors, crop raiding, railway and road kills; solutions: elephant-proof fences, early warning systems, corridor restoration, Railway mitigation (speed restrictions). (2) Leopard-Human Conflict: leopards are India's most adaptable big cat, living near human settlements; about 100+ human deaths/year; worst in Maharashtra (Junnar, Nasik), Uttarakhand (Pauri, Rudraprayag), and Himachal Pradesh; causes: loss of natural prey, livestock predation, expanding urban fringe; solutions: translocation (controversial), cattle compensation, street lighting. (3) Tiger-Human Conflict: less frequent than elephant/leopard but more publicized; concentrated in Sundarbans (WB) — honey collectors and fishers attacked by tigers; solutions: nylon masks (worn on back of head — tigers attack from behind), alternative livelihoods. (4) Wild Boar and Nilgai Conflict: crop damage across India; demands for reclassification as vermin are politically sensitive. Government schemes: compensation for crop loss and human casualties; Centrally Sponsored Scheme on HWC Management (2022); crop insurance; alternative livelihood support. The concept of "wildlife corridors" — strips of habitat connecting protected areas — is crucial for reducing conflict by providing animals safe passage between habitats.
Wildlife Crime and Enforcement
Wildlife crime is a serious threat to India's biodiversity, estimated to be worth billions globally. India is both a source and transit country for illegal wildlife trade. Key species targeted: (1) Tiger — skins, bones (traditional Chinese medicine), claws; India is the world's largest range country for tigers; despite 3,167+ tigers, about 100+ tigers are killed annually by poachers/conflict; (2) Elephant — ivory tusks; India banned domestic ivory trade in 1986; ivory is smuggled to Southeast Asia and China; (3) Rhinoceros — horn (keratin, used in traditional medicine); Kaziranga and surrounding areas face persistent poaching; (4) Red Sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus) — endemic to Seshachalam Hills (AP); smuggled to China and Japan for furniture and dye; massive poaching operations involving thousands of woodcutters; (5) Pangolin — India has Indian Pangolin and Chinese Pangolin (both on IUCN Critically Endangered); most trafficked mammals in the world; scales used in traditional medicine; (6) Star Tortoise — pet trade; smuggled from South India. Enforcement agencies: Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB, est. 2007) — coordinates interstate and international enforcement; Forest Department (state-level enforcement); Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) — handles high-profile cases; Customs and Border Security Force — interdiction at borders. TRAFFIC India (WWF-IUCN) monitors wildlife trade patterns. Challenges: under-staffed forest departments (India has only ~1 forest guard per 5 sq km of forest, compared to 1 per 2 sq km recommended), low conviction rates, porous borders, organized crime networks, and demand from neighboring countries. Technology solutions: surveillance drones, camera traps, GPS tracking, AI-based monitoring (TrailGuard cameras), and DNA forensics for species identification.
Coral Reef Conservation
Coral reefs are underwater ecosystems built by colonies of coral polyps that secrete calcium carbonate skeletons. They are among the most biodiverse and productive ecosystems, often called "rainforests of the sea." India has four major coral reef areas: (1) Andaman & Nicobar Islands — fringing reefs; most extensive and diverse; over 200 coral species; threatened by the 2004 tsunami (reef damage, sedimentation) and climate change; (2) Lakshadweep Islands — atoll reefs; India's only true atolls; coral mining was historically significant; now protected; bleaching events increasing; (3) Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat) — patchy reefs; most northerly reef system in India; adapted to extreme conditions (high turbidity, temperature range); Marine National Park protects 42 islands with reefs; (4) Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) — fringing reefs around 21 islands; India's first Marine Biosphere Reserve; dugong, sea turtles, and pearl oysters. Palk Bay also has reef patches. Threats to coral reefs: (a) Coral Bleaching — caused by rising sea surface temperatures; corals expel symbiotic zooxanthellae algae and turn white; can be fatal if prolonged; mass bleaching events in 1998, 2010, 2016, and 2020 affected Indian reefs; (b) Ocean Acidification — CO2 absorption lowers ocean pH, dissolving calcium carbonate; (c) Sedimentation from coastal development and river discharge; (d) Overfishing and destructive fishing practices (dynamite, cyanide); (e) Pollution from sewage and industrial effluents; (f) Tourism pressure (anchor damage, trampling). Conservation measures: Marine Protected Areas (Mahatma Gandhi Marine NP in A&N, Marine NP in Gulf of Kutch), Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) rules, coral transplantation programmes (Bio-rock technology), and India's National Action Plan for Conservation of Marine Biodiversity.
Mangrove Conservation
Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees and shrubs that grow in the intertidal zone of tropical and subtropical coasts. India has about 4,992 sq km of mangrove cover (ISFR 2021) — about 0.15% of total geographical area; a 17% increase since 1987. India ranks 5th globally in mangrove area. Distribution: (1) Sundarbans (West Bengal) — world's largest contiguous mangrove forest (~4,200 sq km in India + 6,000 sq km in Bangladesh); home to the Royal Bengal Tiger, saltwater crocodile, Gangetic dolphin; UNESCO World Heritage Site; Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve; faces severe threats from sea level rise, cyclones, and salinity intrusion. (2) Gujarat — Kutch, Jamnagar (including Marine NP), and Saurashtra coast; 2nd largest after WB. (3) Andaman & Nicobar Islands — diverse mangrove species. (4) Maharashtra — Thane Creek, Ratnagiri; Mumbai's mangroves are crucial for flood protection. (5) Other states: Karnataka, Goa, Kerala, TN (Pichavaram — 2nd largest mangrove forest in India), AP, Odisha (Bhitarkanika — 2nd largest after Sundarbans by contiguous area; saltwater crocodile population). Ecological services: (a) Coastal protection — mangroves act as a natural buffer against cyclones, storm surges, and tsunamis (villages behind mangroves suffered less damage during the 2004 tsunami); (b) Carbon sequestration — mangroves store 3-5 times more carbon than terrestrial forests ("blue carbon"); (c) Nursery habitat for fish, prawns, and crabs; support fisheries worth thousands of crores; (d) Biodiversity — support unique species; (e) Water filtration — trap sediments and pollutants. Threats: conversion for aquaculture (shrimp farming), urbanization, industrial development, and climate change. Conservation: CRZ rules protect mangroves; the National Mangrove Mission; India's mangrove cover has been increasing — a conservation success story.
Biopiracy and Traditional Knowledge Protection
Biopiracy refers to the unauthorized appropriation of traditional knowledge or biological resources by individuals or corporations, typically from developing countries, for commercial purposes without fair benefit-sharing with the source communities. India has been a major victim of biopiracy: (1) Turmeric Patent (1995): The University of Mississippi obtained a US patent for using turmeric to heal wounds — a practice documented in Indian traditional medicine for centuries. India's CSIR successfully challenged and revoked the patent in 1997 — the first successful case of a developing country challenging a biopiracy patent. (2) Neem Patent: European Patent Office granted a patent to W.R. Grace (US) for using neem extract as a fungicide. India challenged the patent, arguing neem's pesticidal properties had been known for centuries. The patent was revoked in 2005 after a 10-year legal battle. (3) Basmati Rice: RiceTec (US) obtained a patent for "Basmati" rice varieties in 1997. India challenged it, and most claims were narrowed or revoked. India subsequently obtained a GI (Geographical Indication) tag for Basmati. India's defenses: (a) Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL): a database of about 3.4 lakh traditional formulations from Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, and Yoga in five international languages; searchable by patent offices worldwide to reject fraudulent patents; managed by CSIR and Ministry of AYUSH. (b) Nagoya Protocol (2010): requires Prior Informed Consent (PIC) and Mutually Agreed Terms (MAT) for accessing genetic resources. (c) Biological Diversity Act 2002: Section 3 requires approval from NBA for foreign access to Indian biological resources. (d) GI tags for agricultural products (Darjeeling Tea, Basmati Rice, Malabar Pepper, etc.) protect against misuse of names. (e) People's Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) at the local level document traditional knowledge.
Forest Conservation in India
India's forest cover, as per ISFR 2021 (India State of Forest Report by FSI), is about 713,789 sq km (21.71% of total geographical area). Classification: Very Dense Forest (>70% canopy) — 99,278 sq km (3.02%); Moderately Dense Forest (40-70% canopy) — 306,890 sq km (9.33%); Open Forest (10-40% canopy) — 307,621 sq km (9.36%). Scrub (another 46,539 sq km) is not counted as forest. The National Forest Policy 1988 targets 33% forest cover (67% for hilly areas), which India has not yet achieved. Top states by forest cover area: Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Maharashtra. Top states by percentage: Mizoram (84.53%), Arunachal Pradesh (79.33%), Meghalaya (76.33%). Legal framework: (1) Indian Forest Act 1927 — classified forests as Reserved (highest protection), Protected, and Village forests; gives states power to regulate. (2) Forest Conservation Act 1980 — requires Central government approval for diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes; single most important forest protection law; any industry, mining, or infrastructure project needs FCA clearance; the Forest Advisory Committee (FAC) advises MoEFCC. (3) Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 2006 (FRA/Forest Rights Act) — recognizes Individual Forest Rights (IFR — up to 4 hectares to forest-dwelling STs) and Community Forest Resources (CFR) rights; Gram Sabhas can claim management of community forest resources; landmark legislation empowering tribal communities; however, implementation has been poor — many claims rejected. (4) CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority): when forest land is diverted, the user agency must pay for compensatory afforestation; CAMPA manages ~Rs 54,000 crore corpus; states use funds for plantation and forest management.
Ecosystem Services and Economic Valuation
Ecosystem services are the benefits humans derive from natural ecosystems. Classified by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2005) into four categories: (1) Provisioning Services — food (agriculture, fisheries, forest produce), water (watersheds, aquifers), timber, fuelwood, medicinal plants, genetic resources; India's forests provide livelihood to about 300 million forest-dependent people; NTFPs (Non-Timber Forest Products) like tendu leaves (beedi), bamboo, honey, lac, and medicinal plants are worth Rs 50,000+ crore annually. (2) Regulating Services — climate regulation (carbon sequestration by forests — India's forests store about 7,124 million tonnes of carbon), flood control (wetlands and floodplains), water purification, pollination (bees, butterflies — valued at $1.4 billion/year for Indian agriculture), disease regulation. (3) Cultural Services — recreation, tourism (wildlife tourism alone contributes Rs 17,000+ crore to India's economy), spiritual and religious values (sacred groves), aesthetic and educational values. (4) Supporting Services — nutrient cycling, soil formation, primary production, water cycling — these underpin all other services. Economic valuation: TEEB (The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity) studies have estimated the total value of India's forest ecosystem services at $1.7 trillion/year; yet this value is largely invisible in GDP calculations. Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes are emerging — e.g., paying upstream forest communities for maintaining watershed services that benefit downstream users. Green GDP — an attempt to account for environmental costs in national income — has been proposed but not yet implemented in India. The concept of "natural capital" — treating ecosystems as economic assets — is gaining traction; India committed to natural capital accounting at the G20.
Conservation Success Stories in India
Despite challenges, India has notable conservation achievements: (1) Tiger Recovery: from 1,411 tigers in 2006 to 3,167+ in 2022 — one of the world's greatest conservation success stories; achieved through strict protection, increased funding, relocation of villages from core zones, and camera trap monitoring; India now hosts 75% of the world's wild tigers. (2) One-Horned Rhinoceros: population in India grew from about 600 in the 1960s to 3,262+ today (mostly in Kaziranga); armed anti-poaching patrols, intelligence networks, and habitat management have been key. (3) Asiatic Lion: increased from about 180 in 1974 to 674+ in 2020; found only in Gir and surrounding areas (Gujarat); the population has spread beyond the national park into surrounding landscapes. (4) Indian Crocodile Conservation: the Crocodile Breeding and Management Project (1975) saved three species from extinction — mugger (marsh) crocodile, saltwater crocodile, and gharial; Madras Crocodile Bank (TN) is a key institution. (5) Olive Ridley Sea Turtle: mass nesting (arribada) at Gahirmatha and Rushikulya (Odisha) protected through Operation Olivia (Coast Guard) and fishing regulations. (6) Mangrove Recovery: India's mangrove cover has increased 17% since 1987. (7) Project Hangul: the Kashmir stag (hangul, Cervus hanglu hanglu), India's only surviving member of the red deer family, had declined to ~150 in the 1970s; conservation efforts in Dachigam NP (J&K) stabilized the population at ~250+. (8) Blackbuck: once severely threatened by hunting, the blackbuck population has recovered significantly; found across grasslands of Rajasthan, Gujarat, MP, and the Deccan. The Bishnoi community of Rajasthan has protected blackbucks for centuries. (9) Vulture Recovery: after the near-extinction due to diclofenac, captive breeding and the ban on veterinary diclofenac (2006, replaced by meloxicam) have helped stabilize vulture populations; the first captive-bred vultures were released in the wild in 2020.
Relevant Exams
Biodiversity conservation is extremely important for UPSC Prelims (3-5 questions yearly). Questions on IUCN categories, CITES appendices, WLPA schedules, and CBD/Nagoya Protocol are perennial. SSC/RRB exams test in-situ vs ex-situ, gene banks, and captive breeding examples. The Kunming-Montreal Framework and new species discoveries are current affairs priorities.